LANGUAGE AND GENDER SYLLABI: PART 6 (of 6) 25. LENORA A. TIMM, University of California at Davis Program in Linguistics UC Davis Davis, CA 95616-8685 916/752-4540/9933 (mess.) Linguistics 113 Winter 1993 LINGUISTICS 113: Language, Gender & Society. (4 units) Quarter: Winter 1993. Lecture Hours: 3. Discussion: 1. Course Goals: The course examines the nature and function of sex differences in communication on a cross-cultural basis. The emphasis is on verbal (spoken and written) language, but some attention is also paid to differences in nonverbal communication. The contrasts between stereotypes about how women and men communicate and the actually occurring patterns are carefully examined. The significance of different communication patterns is considered in connection with theoretical models drawn from sociolinguistics, anthropology, and psychology. Topics covered include: Sex differences in linguistic forms (pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, etc.); conversational patterns; issues of status and politeness; gender bias in language use; developmental aspects of sex-differential language use; sex differences in nonverbal communication; case studies in language use (i.e., sex-related differences in legal language; in educational texts; in the mass media); and strategies for changing sexist linguistic practices. Recommended Preparation: Linguistics 1 or Anthropology 4. Course format: Lectures and discussion; several videos & films. Student Assignments: One short paper (25%); one term paper (50%); final exam (25%) Textbooks: (1) Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae, and Nancy Henley (eds.), LANGUAGE, GENDER AND SOCIETY. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 2nd ed., l983. (2) Jennifer Coates and Deborah Cameron (eds.), WOMEN IN THEIR SPEECH COMMUNITIES: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE AND SEX. New York: Longman, 1989. (3) Joyce Penfield, ed., WOMEN AND LANGUAGE IN TRANSITION. Albany: New York State University Press, 1987. (4) LINGUISTICS 113 READER: a collection of articles available at Navin's Copy Shop. Linguistics 113 Winter 1993 S Y L L A B U S LECTURE TOPICS AND REQUIRED READINGS Abbreviations Used: LGS = Language, Gender and Society, ed. by Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae & Nancy Henley. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983. WLT = Women and Language in Transition, ed. by Joyce Penfield. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987. WTSC = Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex, ed. by Jennifer Coates & Deborah Cameron. New York: Longman, 1989. L113R = Linguistics 113 Reader (a collection of articles and book chapters compiled from different sources) 1.0. THE STUDY OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN GENERAL AND LANGUAGE AND SEX IN PARTICULAR a. WTSC: Ch. 1, Introduction; Ch. 2, "Some Problems in the Sociolinguistic Explanation of Sex Differences" (by D. Cameron & J. Coates) b. LGS: pp. 7-24, "Language, Gender and Society: Opening a Second Decade of Research" (by B. Thorne, C. Kramarae, & N. Henley) c. L113R: "When 'Difference' is 'Dominance' : A Critique of the 'Anti-power-based' Cultural Approach to Sex Differences" (by A. Uchida in Language in Society 21(4):547- 568) 2.0. THE INTERPRETATION OF SEX DIFFERENCES IN LINGUISTIC FORMS a. L113: "What has Gender Got to do with Sex?" (by D. Cameron in Language and Communication 5(1):19-27) b. LGS: pp. 69-88, "Intonation in a Man's World" (by S. McConnell-Ginet) 3.0. SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE SELECTION AND FREQUENCY OF LINGUISTIC FORMS 3.1. Assumptions and Stereotypes; Speech Styles a. L113R: "Proprietors of Language" (by C. Kramarae in S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Woman and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 1980, pp. 58-68) b. L113R: "Genderlect, Powerlect, and Politeness" (by N. Hoar in L. A .M. Perry, L. H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds., Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. Albany: State University of New York, 1992, pp. 127-136.) 3.2. Empirical Evidence a. WTSC: Ch. 7, "Lakoff in context: The social and linguistic functions of tag questions" (by D. Cameron, F. McAlinden & K. O'Leary) b. L113R: "How Taboo are Taboo Words for Girls?" (by V. De Klerk in Language in Society 21(2): 277-290) c. L113R: "Functions of you know in women's and men's speech" (by J. Holmes in Language in Society 15(1):1-22) 4.0. STRATEGIES OF COMMUNICATION 4.1. The Politics of Conversation a. LGS: pp. 89-102, "Interaction: The Work Women Do" (by P. Fishman). b. LGS: pp. 103-118, "Small Insults: A Study of Interruptions in Cross-Sex Conversations between Unacquainted Persons" (by C. West and D. Zimmerman). c. WTSC: Ch. 8, "Gossip Revisited..." (by J. Coates); Ch. 9, "Talk Control..." (by J. Swann); Ch. 10, "Talking Shop..." (by N. Woods). 4.2. Issues of Status, Politeness, Power and "Face" a. WTSC: Ch. 3, "A Pragmatic Account of Women's Use of Standard Speech" (by M. Deuchar) b. LGS: pp. 119-124, "Men, Inexpressiveness, and Power" (by J. Sattel) c. L113R: "How and Why are Women More Polite: Some Evidence from a Mayan Community" (by P. Brown in S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Woman and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 1980, pp. 111-136) d. L113R "Teasing and Sexual Harassment: Double-bind Communication in the Workplace (by J. Alberts in L. A .M. Perry, L. H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds., Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. Albany: State University of New York, 1992, pp. 185-196) 4.3. Identity and Conservatism vs. Innovation a. LGS: pp. 54-68, "Linguistic Options and Choices for Black Women in the Rural South" (by P. Nichols). b. WLT: pp. 159-166, "The role of American Indian women in cultural continuity and transition" (by B. Medecine). c. WLT: pp. 167-179, "Language and female identity in the Puerto Rican community" (by A. Zentella). d. WTSC: Ch. 5, "Differences of sex and sects..." (by B. Thomas) 5.0. PSYCHO-SOCIAL CONSTRAINTS REFLECTED IN LANGUAGE: GENDER BIAS IN ENGLISH 5.1. The Generic Masculine and Other Male-as-Norm Phenomena a. LGS: pp. 25-37, "Beyond the He/Man Approach: The Case for Nonsexist Language" (by W. Martyna). b. LGS: pp. 38-53, "Prescriptive Grammar and the Pronoun Problem" (by D. MacKay). c. WLT: pp. 28-36, "Linguistic description: He/she, s/he, he or she, he-she" (by B.L. Dubois and I. Crouch) 5.2. The Lexicon: Words about Women and Men a. L113R: "From discourse to dictionary: How sexist meanings are authorized" (by P.A. Treichler in F.W. Frank & P.A. Treichler, eds., Language, Gender, and Professional Writing. Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern Language Assoc., 1989, pp. 51-79) b. L113R: "The Semantic Derogation of Women" (by M. Schulz in B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975, pp. 64-73.). c. L113R : "Sexism in English: A 1990s Update" (by A. Pace Nilsen in P. Escholz, A. Rosa & V. Clark, eds., Language Awareness. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990, pp. 277- 287) 5.3. References to the Sexes a. L113R: "Don't 'Dear' Me!" (by N. Wolfson & J. Manes in S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 1980, pp.79-92. b. WLT: "Surnaming: The struggle for personal identity" (by J. Penfield). 6.0. THE ACQUISITION OF SEX DIFFERENTIAL LANGUAGE a. LGS: pp. 140-150, "Men's Speech to Young Children" (by J. B. Gleason and E. Greif) b. L113R: "Directive-Response Speech Sequence in Girls' and Boys' Task Activities" (by M. Goodwin in S. McConnell- Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Woman and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 1980, pp. 157-163) c. L113R: " 'Kings are Royaler than Queens': Language and Socialization" (by A. Shelton in Young Children [January]:4-9) 7.0. SEX DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION a. L113R: "Silent sounds and secret messages "(by B. Eakins & G. Eakins in B. Eakins & G .Eakins, Sex Differences in Human Communication. Palo Alto: Houghton Mifflin Co., pp.147-179) 8.0. CASE STUDIES IN LANGUAGE USE (VERBAL & NONVERBAL) 8.1. Literature a. LGS: pp. 125-139, "Consciousness as Style: Style as Aesthetic ((by J. Penelope & S. Wolfe) 8.2. The Law a. L113R: "Sexism in the Language of Legislatures and Courts" (by H. Bosmajian in A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism and Language. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1977, pp. 77-106) 8.3. Education a. L113R: "Sexism in Children's Books and Elementary Classroom Materials" (by A. Nilsen in A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism and Language. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1977, pp. 151-180) b. L113R: "Sex Role Stereotypes of Stepparents in Children's Literature" (by P. Cooper in L.P. Stewart & S. Ting- Toomey, eds., Communication, Gender, and Sex Roles in Diverse Interaction Contexts. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX, 1987, pp. 61-82) c. WLT: pp. 87-53, "Guidelines against sexist language: A case history" (by A.P. Nilsen) 8.4. The Media a. L113R: "A New 'Genderation' of Images to Women" (by L. Lazier-Smith in P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989, pp. 247-260) b. L113R: "A Sociocultural Close-up: Body Image in Advertising" (by A. Gagnard in P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989, pp. 261-262) c. L113R: "Discourse on Women's Bodies: Advertising in the 1920s" (by M. Hawkins & T. Nakayama) in L. A .M. Perry, L. H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds., Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. Albany: State University of New York, 1992, pp. 61-72) 9.0. STRATEGIES FOR SOCIAL AND LINGUISTIC CHANGE a. WLT: pp. 3-27, "The new species that seeks a new language: On sexism in language and language change" (by N. Henley) b. WLT: pp. 65-72, "Resources for liberating the curriculum" (by B. Withers). Videos/Films Used in LIN 113 Stale Roles & Tight Buns (1982). O.A.S.I.S. ([Men] Organized Against Sexism and Institutionalized Racism] Gender: The Enduring Paradox (c. 1990). Smithsonian World/PBS. Inequity in the Classroom (1991). Concordia, Canada: Concordia University. Still Killing Us Softly: Advertising's Image of Women (1987). J. Kilbourne, Cambridge, MA. Linguistics 113 Language, Gender and Society Winter 1993 Professor: Lenora A. Timm. Office Hours: Tues/Thurs., 12-1:30 or by appt. My office is in 903 Sproul. The Linguistics Office is in 922 Sproul. Telephone: 752-4540/9933 (message) T.A.s: Ulrike Cristofori & Helen Hadji TEXTBOOKS: (1) Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae, and Nancy Henley (eds.), LANGUAGE, GENDER AND SOCIETY. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 2nd ed., l983. [Abbreviated in the Syllabus as LGS] (2) Jennifer Coates and Deborah Cameron (eds.), WOMEN IN THEIR SPEECH COMMUNITIES: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE AND SEX. New York: Longman, 1989. [Abbreviated in the Syllabus as WTSC] (3) Joyce Penfield, ed., WOMEN AND LANGUAGE IN TRANSITION. Albany: New York State University Press, 1987. [Abbreviated in the Syllabus as WLT] (4) LINGUISTICS 113 READER: a collection of articles available at Navin's Copy Shop [Abbreviated in the Syllabus as L113R] COURSE REQUIREMENTS: This is a General Education Course (Contemporary Societies). There is, therefore, an emphasis on the enhancement of writing skills. Specific requirements include: (1) one short paper (5-7 pages), worth 25% of the course grade (2) a longer research paper (12+ pages) due at the end of the quarter, worth 50% of the course grade (3) a final examination, worth 25% of the course grade. More information on the nature of the writing assignments will be provided early in the quarter. SCHEDULE Lecture Date Associated Readings or Other Assignment (Numbers and letters refer to sections in the Syllabus.) JAN. 7 ----- 12 1.0.a.-c. 14 2.0.a.-b. 19 21 3.1.a.-b. 26 FILM 28 FEB. 2 3.2.a.-c. 4 4.1.a.-c. 9 4.2.a.-d. 11 4.3.a.-d. 16 5.1.a.-c./Paper #1 Due (in class) 18 5.2.a.-c. 23 5.3.a.-c/ 25 6.0.a.-c./FILM MAR 2 7.0.a. 4 8.1.a. 9 8.2.a. 11 8.3.a.-c. 16 8.4. a.-c. & 9.0.a.-b./FILM 22 FINAL EXAM (8-10 a.m.) 24 Paper #2 Due (by 5 p.m. in 922 Sproul) Topics for Paper #1 1. This topic requires that you watch some TV; specifically, a show with a good amount of dialogue, such as a soap opera or a talk show. Tape-record a minimum of one hour of talk from one type of show or the other, and while watching it, take notes on characteristics of the speakers in terms of their sex, approximate age, approximate socioeconomic status and educational level, as well as their relationship with other characters if you're watching a soap opera (friend, parent, child, lover, estranged spouse); or participants if you are watching a talk (guest, host, famous or not, relative age and authority of guest vs. host). The assignment involves listening to these dialogues and documenting any sex-linked differences in two of the following areas of language usage: 1) intonational contours (sentence melodies). 2) pronunciation differences (e.g., runnin' vs. running, watchin' vs. watching; would'ja vs. would you; gonna vs. going to, etc.). 3) vocabulary differences (e.g., in choice of expletive such as 'darn' vs. 'damn' or something stronger; choice of adjectives such as 'neat/nice' vs. 'rad/awesome', etc.; also in reference to the sexes--e.g., 'woman', 'girl', 'chick', 'lady'; 'man', 'boy', 'guy', 'dude', 'dudette', etc.). 4) tag questions (divide tags into modal vs. facilitative, following the model provided in Reading 3.2.a, and pay attention to intonation on the tags). 5) hedges & fillers ('you know', 'sort of', 'kinda', 'like', etc.) You will need to consider how any differences you find correspond (if they do) with the particular conversational pairs involved (i.e., wife-husband, daughter-mother, daughter-father, lover-lover, son-mother, son-father; host- guest, guest-guest); and you may find it useful to comment on particular traits of given characters or personalities. In writing up your findings, tie your discussion in as much as possible with what we have so far covered in class (lectures and/or reading) about stereotypes of female and male speech and also what is known from empirical studies that have been carried out (see the readings in 2.0., 3.1., & 3.2.). It is important that you structure your paper in an organized way, including: --a statement of purpose (what you hope to accomplish and why). --a brief discussion of the programs you chose to watch and why these particular programs. --a compact presentation of your data, and possibly examples of some exchanges among speakers that you recorded. --a discussion of the data and their implications in connection with the stereotypes and realities of male/female communication differences. --a brief conclusion. Your paper should be typed double-spaced, well proof-read and approximately 6-7 pages in length (it may be longer if you wish). 2. Drawing on what you have so far learned about sex differences in English, create three conversations (about1- 1/2-2 pages each) between female-female, male-male, and female-male conversational partners. The speakers should be matched for age, education, and socioeconomic status. Construct the conversations around one (and only one) of the following themes: --Does television influence people's behavior? --Finding employment after graduation --Life in the U.S in the year 2020 Construct the conversations so that they sound reasonably natural to you--that is, don't overdo the stereotyped linguistic features associated with the female and male speech registers (styles). On the other hand, you should incorporate those linguistic features that seem to be in agreement with real usage (according to what has been reported in lectures and/or the readings, and based also on your own experience). Following the conversations, provide a discussion of the similarities and contrasts in the three sets of conversations that you have constructed, and indicate specific readings and/or lecture materials that you have drawn on in creating them--(see the Syllabus 3.1., 3.2, & 4.1.) Your paper should be typed double-spaced, well proof-read, and approximately 6-7 pages in length (it may be longer if you wish). 3. Carefully read and think about the xeroxed editorial by columnist John Keasler found on the other side of this sheet. Your assignment is to write a rebuttal to Keasler's attack on the revised edition of Roget's Thesaurus that has attempted to eliminate sexist linguistic usages. You should respond to each of his assertions, or complaints, and you may do so with rhetorical vigor; but be sure to document your statements or points of rebuttal with references to research presented in lecture and/or readings for this course. The readings especially pertinent to this assignment are found in Sections 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 of the Syllabus. Your paper should be 5-7 pages, typed and double-spaced. Pay attention to your grammar, style, and spelling. Linguistics 113 TERM PAPER (Paper #2) TOPIC SUGGESTIONS (Papers due on March 24, 1993) The topics that follow are suggestive rather than exhaustive. In other words, if there is some other project which you would like to undertake that falls within the rather generous boundaries of the field we are studying, that will probably be fine by me; just be sure to clear your idea with your T.A. or with me first. Most of the topics I have included here involve data collection and analysis. Your paper should include both some examples of the data and a discussion of your data- gathering techniques. You may wish to include all of your data as a kind of appendix to which the reader can be referred (however, the appendix is not to be counted as part of the 12 pages required; bibliography, on the other hand, may be counted). Your paper grade will depend greatly on the quality of your analysis and interpretation of the data and also on the coherence of its overall organization. 1. a. Differential Usage of Tag Questions. Collect data for at least a week from overheard conversations and from radio and T.V. (especially talk shows). You should note down in a systematic way the following factors in each situation: 1) sex of speaker and addressee 2) approximate ages of speaker and addressee 3) social identity of speaker and addressee (e.g., mother- daughter, brother-sister, friend-friend, student-teacher, newscaster-newscaster, host-guest, etc.) 4) the actual sentence heard with its tag question (e.g., 'I can go now, can't I?; 'You're a real wise-guy, aren't you?') 5) the type of sentence melody on the tag (rising, falling, or other). 6) additional voice modulations (e.g., angry, supplicating, sarcastic, etc.) 7) the place where you heard the tag question (e.g., on the sidewalk outside of the speaker's apartment, in a linguistics class, on a TV talk show, etc.). Relate your findings to such research as exists on this topic (see relevant articles listed in Part IV.B. of the Annotated Bibliography in LGS, pp. 239-246 and in Part V.B. of the L113 Bibliography) 1.b.. Differential Usage of Rising Terminals on Sentences that are Responses to Questions This research topic is related to Topic 1.a., and was mentioned in class in connection with the claim that has been made that women tend much more than men to answer, in effect, a question with a question--e.g. Q: What is your name? A: My name is Sara Strong (with the answer ending in a rising terminal, suggesting a question). Follow the directions as for 1.a. through Item 3 and also Item 7). Beyond that look for any factors in the context or the nature of the interaction that might help you understand why this type of intonational pattern is selected. It would also be very useful, if possible, to record instances of the same speaker using falling intonation in some contexts, and then to see which variables (if any) have changed across the examples of rising vs. falling intonation in response to a question. Relate your findings to such research as exists on this topic (see relevant articles listed in Part IV.B. of the Annotated Bibliography in LGS, pp. 239-246 and in Part V.B. of the L113 Bibliography) 2. Differential Usage of Direct/Indirect Imperatives You will need to consider all of the same variables as given in #1, adapting them, of course, to the use of imperatives. In addition, you may find it useful to classify the imperatives in the following way: DIRECT: e.g., Shut up!, Go away! INDIRECT: Will you go away? Would you mind going away? Won't you please go away? DIRECT + INDIRECT: Go away, please! or Go away, won't you please? Relate your findings to the hypotheses and interpretations of sex differences in politeness forms set forth in Penelope Brown's article "How and Why are Women More Polite..." (in your L113R set of readings; also look at relevant articles in Part VII. of LIN 113 Bibliography). 3. Differences in Conversational Practices For this project you will need to tape-record and take careful notes on what goes on during a conversation or informal discussion among the members of a small group (4-6 people, mixed sex). You will need at least an hour's worth of talk to get enough data for patterns to become evident; and you must also get the consent of the people whom you record. Alternatively, you can collect data from TV talk shows; such data are somewhat less than "normal", but they usually are spontaneous and they are readily accessible. Questions that you will be trying to answer are: who takes more turns; who takes longer turns; who interrupts whom; who is interrupted most often; who interrupts most; how is sex related to turns and interruptions? The following information should be noted for each participant in the conversation: 1) sex and approximate age of speaker 2) number of turns taken in a particular conversation 3) average length of speaker's turns (in seconds or minutes) 4) number of interruptions made by each speaker 5) number or times each speaker was interrupted 6) reaction of the person interrupted (e.g., tried to regain the floor, overrrode the interruption, lapsed into silence, etc.). Discuss your findings in light of the readings and lectures on conversational dynamics (and see Part V of the Annotated Bibliography of LGS, pp. 264-292 and Part VI of LIN 113 Bibliography). 4. Differences in Terms of Address Keep a journal for at least a week in which you record how you were addressed by whom in what situations. Note down systematically the setting in which each term of address was used (e.g., service stations, restaurant, a telephone call received, doctor's office, etc.); the social identity of the addressor (e.g., gas station attendant, waitress or waiter, insurance salesperson, doctor or nurse); the sex and approximate age of the addressor. What conclusions can you draw about others' perceptions of you as a social persona on the basis of the terms of address you receive. Discuss in relation to readings in section 5.3. of the syllabus; and look at articles in Part XI of LIN 113 Bibliography 5. Differences in the Use of the Third Person Pronoun Collect examples, in the sentences in which you hear them, of the third person pronoun used to refer to a person whose sex is unknown or irrevelant. Jot them down in a notebook as you hear them, noting also sex of speaker and of addressee, approximate age and socioeconomic position of the speaker. Collect examples for two weeks. You may pad out your corpus of data with examples culled from written sources as well. Organize your data along the following lines (from Ann Bodine [1975] "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar", Language in Society 4:129-146): 1) Either sex, distributive (e.g., Anyone can do it if ____ tries) 2) Either sex, disjunctive (e.g., A father or mother is supposed to love ___child) 3) Sex unknown (e.g., Who didn't return _____ library book on time?) 4) Sex concealed (e.g., A certain party told me that ___ had forgotten) Which third person pronouns are used in each category and with what relative frequencies? Be prepared to hear 'they/their/them' in addition to the singular pronouns 'she/her/her' and 'he/his/him'. Does usage vary with any of the social variables noted above (sex of speaker, etc.). Discuss findings in relation to other research on the generic masculine (Section 5.1. of syllabus and additional references in Part II.D. of the Annotated Bibliography of LGS, pp. 174-181 and in Part IX of LIN 113 Bibliography). 6. Differences in Nonverbal Communication: Smiling/Frowning and Touching Observe same-sex and mixed-sex dyads of people interacting and note differences between each pair in smiling/frowning behavior and in touching. Who, in terms of sex, age, social identity, smiles/frowns more frequently at whom? And who touches whom and what is the nature of the touching (handshaking, grasping the upper arm, tapping the back of the other's hand or back, leaning on the other party, etc.). Find a way of coding your observations so that you will be able to give some quantitative statements about differences in body language. Relate findings to some of the literature on nonverbal communication (see Part IX of the Annotated Bibliography in LGS, pp. 327-331 and Part XIII of LIN 113 Bibliography). 7. Speech Role Models in Children's Books Compare several books written for children (perhaps in different decades--e.g., the 1940's, the 1960s, and the 1980s) looking for differences in speaking portrayed by the girls and boys in the dialogues--differences relating to verbosity, content, topic, politeness, etc. Look also for differences in the adult speaking models--do they parallel what you find for the children? Relate your findings to those reported by Nilsen (in section 8.3 of syllabus) and relevant articles cited in Part XVI of LIN 113 Bibliography. 8. Adult Speech Patterns in Literature Contrast the dialogue of female and male characters in works of fiction written by female and male authors who are of about the same generation and nationality. A sample of four novels should suffice--two by female and two by male writers of an equivalent genre (e.g., spy, science fiction, romance, etc.). Compare your findings with some of that reported in the research on literary style (Part VI.B. of the Annotated Bibliography in LGS pp. 300-304 and Part XIV of LIN 113 Bibliography). Some Topics that Have Been Examined by LIN 113 Students in Past Years Differences in language used to infants Sexism in popular music lyrics Sisters sing: the lyrics of African American women singers The images of woman in popular music Gender in poetry Sleeping beauties and sinister stepmothers: How fairy tales affect childrens' perceptions of gender in society The influences of Disney movies on children's perceptions of gender in society Sex in Seuss: An examination of gender bias in beginner books 'Girl' vs. 'guy': an analysis of language usage The depiction of sex role (and language usage) in greeting cards Inmates and classmates: What men call women Gender and conversational practices: A comparison of three UCD discussion sections Eye contact: The study of one form of nonverbal comunication The dance floor as a laboratory: A study of nonverbal communication between the sexes Facial expression: A part of our everyday lives Techniques of address in four American plays Women and terms of address in Russian Hey, nice game, dude! Terms of address in sports The effects of clothing on terms of address Interruption patterns on television talk shows Power surge: The masculine characteristics of female talk- show hosts Sex and gender exploitation in the advertising industry The portrayal of males and females in men's and women's magazines The portrayal of women in the media Media, advertisements, and African American women in white America Ferraro, woman candidate: Her treatment by the press Sexism in sports coverage Sexism in TV commercials Sexism in the language of stand-up comedians Gender perception of American English words An analysis of female and male language use in describing attractive people Beginning writers' conceptions of female/male speech styles. Dr. Morgan, the Wizard, and Mary: What are women worth in the comics? Gendered stereotyped speech in fictional dialogue Sex differences and stereotypes in science fiction Confidence in a linguistic form Linguistic portrayal of gender identity as expressed in nursery rhymes Innocent nursery rhymes? The portrayal of female and male characters in Saturday morning cartoons Sociolinguistic analysis of the movie He said/She said A linguistic perspective on the musical My Fair Lady A sociolinguistic analysis of Fatal Attraction Saturday Night Live: A scciolinguistic analysis Sex stereotyping of animals The influence of culture on language: A study of two Greek societies The generic masculine: Its use and perception by children A survey of fraternity word usage A survey of attitudes towards women retaining their birth names What's in a name? Women's and men's joke-telling at UCD Assessment of sex role stereotypes with regard to occupations by non-American students studying English: A study of attitudes Adolescent sex-role perceptions: A survey of Davis Senior High School students The role of sexist language and stereotypes among teenagers An examination of speech habits in four Davis children OUTLINE OF BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Textbooks and Anthologies 1 II. Overviews 2 III. Book Reviews 4 IV. Perceptions and Stereotypes about Sex Differences in Speech 4 V. Studies of Sex Differences in Linguistic Forms A. Pronunciation/Articulatory Differences 6 B. Grammatical and/or Syntactic Differences 6 C. Lexical Differences 6 D. Differences in the Use/Frequency of Expletives & Graffitti 7 E. General Studies/Cross-Linguistic Studies. 8 VI. Sex Differences in Conversation and Small-Group Interaction 9 VII. Issues of Status, Politeness, Power, and "Face" 12 VIII. Conservatism vs. Innovation in Language 13 IX. The Generic Masculine and other Male-as-Norm Phenomena 14 X. Gender Bias in the Lexicon 15 XI. References to the Sexes 16 XII. Developmental Aspects of Sex Differences in Language 17 XIII. Sex Differences in Nonverbal Communication 19 XIV. Sex Differences/Sexism in Literature 21 XV. Sexism in the Law and Courts 23 XVI. Sexism in Education 23 XVII. Language Usage in the Mass Media 24 XVIII. Language and Feminism 25 XIX. Changing Sexist Language 26 BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Textbooks and Anthologies Berryman, Cynthia L. & Virginia A. Eman, eds. (1980). Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Bosmajian, Haig, A. (1974). The Language of Oppression. Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press. Brouwer, D. & Dorian de Haan, eds., (1987). Women's Language, Socialisation and Self-Image. Dordrecht: Foris. Caldie, Roberta W. (1981). Dominance and Language: A New Perspective in Sexism. Washington, D.C.: University Press. Cameron, Deborah (1985). Feminism and Linguistic Theory. London: Macmillan Press. ______, ed. (1990). The Feminist Critique of Language. A Reader. New York: Routledge. Coates, Jennifer (1986). Women, Men, and Language: A Sociolinguistic Account of Sex New York: Longman. _____ & Deborah Cameron, eds. (1989). Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman. Dubois, Betty Lou & Isabel Crouch, eds. (1976). The Sociology of the Languages of American Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University. Eakins, Barbara W. & R. Gene Eakins (1978). Sex Differences in Human Communication. Palo Alto, CA : Houghton Mifflin. Frank, Francine & Frank Anshen (1983). Language and the Sexes. Albany: State University of New York Press. Frank, Francine W. & Paula A. Teichler, et al. (1989). Language, Gender, and Professional Writing: Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: The Modern Language Association of America. Graddol, David & Joan Swann (1989). Gender Voices. New York: Basil Blackwell. Hill, Alette Olin (1986). Mother Tongue, Father Time. A Decade of Linguistic Revolt. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Kramarae, Cheris (1980). Women and Men Speaking. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. _____, ed. (1980). "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3). Key, Mary Ritchie (1975). Male/Female Language. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press. Lont, Cynthia M., & Sheryl Friedly, eds. (1989). Beyond Boundaries: Sex and Gender Diversity in Communication. Fairfax, VA: George MasonUniversity. Miller, Barbara D. (1992). Sex and gender hierarchies. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Miller, Casey & Kate Swift (1977). Words and Women. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. McConnell-Ginet, Sally, Ruth Borker & Nelly Furman, eds. (1980). Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger. Nadler, L.B., Nadler, M.K. & W.R. Todd-Mancillas, eds. (1987). Advances in Gender and Communication. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley (1977). Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English. Orasanu, Judith, Mariam K. Slater & Leonore Loeb Alder, eds. (1979). Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences , Vol. 327. Pearson, J.C. (1985). Gender and Communication. Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown. Penelope, Julia (1990). Speaking Freely. Unlearning the Lies of the Fathers' Tongues. New York: Pergamon Press. Penfield, Joyce, ed. (1987). Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press. Perry, Linda A.M., Turner, Lynn H. & Helen M. Sterk, eds. (1992). Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. The Links among Communication, Language, and Gender. Albany: State University of New York Press. Philips, Susan U., Steele, Susan & Christine Tanz, eds. (1987). Language, Gender, and Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press. Poynton, Cate (1989). Language and Gender: Making the Difference. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spender, Dale (1980). Man Made Language. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Stewart, L.P. & S. Ting-Toomey, eds. (1987). Communication, Gender and Sex Roles in Diverse Interaction Contexts. Norwood NJ: ABLEX. Thorne, Barrie & Nancy Henley, eds. (1975). Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance.Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. _____, Kramarae, Cheris & Nancy Henley, eds. (1983). Language, Gender and Society. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Todd, Alexandra & Sue Fisher, eds. (1988). Gender and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX. Vetterling-Braggin, Mary, ed. (1981). Sexist Language: A Modern Philosophical Analysis. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams & Co. Wofson, Nessa & Joan Manes (1985). The Language of Inequality. Berlin: Mouton. Yaguello, Marina (1989). Le sexe des mots. Paris: Belford. II.Overviews Beatty, John (1979). Sex, role, and sex role. In Orasanu, Slater & Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:43-52. Bodine, Ann (1975). Sex differentiation in language. In Thorne & Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 130-149. Cameron, Deborah (1985). What has gender got to do with sex? Language and Communication 5(1):19-27. _____ and Jennifer Coates (1985). Some problems in the sociolinguistic explanation of sex differences . Language and Communication 5(3):43-151. Conklin, Nancy Faires (1980). The language of the majority: Women and American English. In Margaret A. Lourie & Nancy F. Conklin, eds., A Pluralistic Nation: The Language Issue in the United States. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 222-237. DeStafano, Johanna (1975). Women's language: By and about. In Ordoubadian & von Raffler-Engel eds., Views on Language. Murfreesboro, TN: Inter-University Publishing, 66-76. Dundas, Todd & Sue Fischer, eds. (1988). Gender and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Eubanks, Sheryle, B. (1975). Sex-based language differences: A cultural reflection. In Ordoubadian & von Raffler-Engel eds., Views on Language. Murfreesboro, TN: Inter- University Publishing, 109-120. Foss, Karen A. & Sonja K. Foss (1983). The status of research on women and communication. Communication Quarterly 31(3):195-204. Frank, Francine W. (1978). Women's language in America. In D. Burtturff & E.L. Epstein eds., Women's Language and Style. Akron, OH: L&S Books, 47-61. Fried, Barbara (1979). Boys will be boys will be boys: The language of sex and gender. In Ruth Hubbard, Barbara Henifine, & Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenchman, 37-59. Furman, Nelly (1978). The study of women and language: Comment. Signs 4:182-185. Goldsmith, Andrea E. (1980). Notes on the tyranny of language usage. In Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):179-192. Gregersen, Edgar (1979). Sexual linguistics. In J. Orasanu, M. Slater & L. Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la diffrence" Make a Difference? New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:3-22. Haugen, Einar (1977). "Sexism" and the Norwegian language. In Paul Hopper (ed.), Studies in Descriptive and Historical Linguistics: Festschrift for Winfred P.Lehmann. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 83-94. Henley, Nancy & Barrie Thorne (1977). Womanspeak and manspeak: Sex differences and sexism in communication, verbal and nonverbal. In Alice Sargen, ed., Beyond Sex roles. St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co. Holmes, Janet (1992). Language and gender: A State-of-the- Art Survey Article. Language Teaching 24(4). Jenkins, Mercilee M. & Cheris Kramarae (1981). A thief in the house: Woman and language. In Dale Spender, ed., Men's Studies Modified: The Impact of Feminism on the Academic Disciplines. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. Johnson, L. Fern (1983). Political and pedagogical implicaions of attitudes towards women's language. Communication Quarterly 31(2):133-138. Key, Mary Ritchie (1972). Linguistic behavior of male and female. Linguistics 88:15-31. Kramarae, Cheris (1975). Women's speech: Separate but unequal? In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 43-54. _____ Barrie Thorne & Nancy Henley (1978). Perspectives on language and communication. Signs 3(3):638-651. Kramarae, Cheris (1980). Proprieters of language. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Border, & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 58-68. _____ (1989). Feminist theories of communication. In E. Barnouw, ed., International Encyclopedia of Communications. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 157-160. Lakoff, Robin (1973). Language and woman's place. Language in Society 2(1):45-80. _____ (1975). Language and Woman's Place. San Francisco: Harper & Row. McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1984). The origins of sexist language in discourse. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 433:123-135. Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Linguistic sexism as a social issue. In Nilsen, Bosmajian, Gershuny & Stanley, eds., Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 1-26. Philips, Susan U. (1980). Sex differences and language. Annual Review of Anthropology 9:523-544. Pop, Sever (1952). Le langage des femmes: enquete linguistique a l'echelle mondiale. Orbis 1(1):10-86 and Orbis 2(1953):7-34. Saint-Jacques, Bernard (1973). Sex, dependency and language. La linguistique 9(1):89-96. Sherzer, Joel (1987). A diversity of voices: men's and women's speech in ethnographic perspective. In Philips, Steele & Tanz, eds., Language, Gender, and Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 95-120. Shibamoto, Janet S. (1982). Contributions of sociolinguistics to the language sciences: Language and Sex. Language Sciences 4(2):115-153. Smith, Phillip M. (1980). Sex markers in speech. In K. R. Scherer & H. Giles, eds., Social Markers in Speech. Cambridge University Press, 109-246. Treichler, Paula A. & Francine Wattman Frank (1989). Introduction: Scholarship, feminism, and language change. In P.A. Treichler & K.W. Frank, Language, Gender, and Professional Writing. Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern Language Association, 1-32. Uchida, Aki (1992). When 'difference' is 'dominance': A critique of the 'anti-power-based' cultural approach to sex differences." Language in Society 21(4):547-568. West, Candace and Don Zimmerman (1985). Gender, language and discourse. In T.A. van Dijik, ed., Handbook of Discourse Analysis. London: Academic Press, 103-124. III. Book Reviews Brown, Penelope (1976). Women and politeness: A new perspective on language and society. Review in Anthropology 3(3):240-249. [Review of Lakoff 1975] DeFrancisco, Victoria L. (1992). Review of You Just Don't Understand, by D. Tannen. Language in Society 21(2):319- 323. DeMott, Benjamin (1976). Review of Words and Women by C. Miller & K. Swift. The New York Times Book Review (July 4), p. 8, 12. Deuchar, Margaret (1987). Feminism and linguistic theory. Review of Language, Feminism and Linguistics, by Deborah Cameron. Language and Communication 7(1):77-90. Eastman, Carol (1978). Review of Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance, ed. by B. Thorne N. Henley. American Anthropologist 79(4):348-349. Henley, Nancy (1978). Review of Words and Women. Contemporary Psychology 23(3):186. Hill, Alette (1976). Review of Words and Women. Frontiers 1(3):113-115. Martyna, Wendy (1978). Review of Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Signs 3(3):704. McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1975). Our father tongue: Essays in linguistic politics. Diacritics 5(4):44-50. [Review of Lakoff 1975] _____ (1983). Review of Language, Sex and Gender: Does "la Difference" Make a Difference?, ed. by J. Orasanu, M.K. Slater & L. Loeb Adler and of Sexist Language: A Modern Philosophoical Analysis, ed. by M. Vetterling-Braggin. Language 59(2): 888373-391. Mills, Sara (1988). Do men and women talk differently? Review of Women, Men and Language by J. Coates. Language & Communication 8(2):155-158. Rosaldo, Michelle (1977). Review of Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Language in Society 6(1):110- 113. Timm, Lenora (1976). Review of Language and Woman's Place by Robin Lakoff. Lingua 39: 244-252. Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1991). Selling the apolitical. Review of You Just Don't Understand by D. Tannen. Discourse & Society 2:489-502. IV. Perceptions and Stereotypes about Sex Differences in Speech Ariel, Mira (1988). Female and male stereotypes in Israeli literature and media: Evidence from introductory patterns. Language & Communication 8(1):43-68. Aronovitch, Charles D. (1976). The voice of personality: Stereotyped judgements and their relation to voice quality and sex of speaker. Journal of Social Psychology 99:207- 220. Berryman, Cynthia L. (1980). Attitudes toward male and female sex-appropriate and sex inappropriate language. In Berryman & Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 195-216. Bliese, Nancy W. (1977). Sex-role stereotyping of adjectives. Bulletin: Women's Studies in Communication 1(2):27-32. Bradley, P.H. (1981). The folk-linguistics of women's speech: An empirical examination." Communication Monographs 48:73-90. Coleman, Ralph O. (1976). A comparison of the contributions of two voice quality characteristics to the perception of maleness and femaleness in the voice. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 19(1). Deaux, Kay & Mary Kite (1985). Gender stereotypes: Some thoughts on the cognitive organization of gender-related information. Academic Psychology Bulletin 7:123-144. Eble, Connie (1975). Girl talk: a bicentennial perspective. In R. Ordoubadian & W. von Raffler-Engel, eds., Views on Language. Murfreesboro, IN: Inter-University Publishing, 77-86. _____(1976). If ladies weren't present, I'd tell you what I really think. In D.L. Shores & C. P. Hines, eds., Papers in Language Variation: Samlads Collection.University: University of Alabama Press, 295-301. _____(1976). Etiquette books as linguistic authority. In P. Reich, ed., The Second LACUS Forum, 1975. Columbia, SC: Hornbeam Press, 458-475. Elyan, Olwen, Philip Smith, Howard Giles & Richard Bourhis (1978). RP-accented femalespeech: The voice of perceived androgyny? In P. Trudgill, ed., Sociolinguistic Patterns in British English. Baltimore: University Park Press. Giles, Howard & Patricia Marsh (1979). Perceived masculinity, androgyny and accented speech. Language Sciences 1(2):301-315. Haas, Adelaide (1979). Male and female spoken language types: Stereotypes and evidence. Psychological Bulletin 86(3):616-626. _____ and Mark A. Sherman (1982). Reported topics of conversation among same-sex adults. Communication Quarterly 332-342. Henton, Caroline (1989). Fact and fiction in the description of female and male pitch. Language and Communication 9(4)299-311. Jeffrey, Mildred (1976). Language and sex stereotyping. In O. Clapp, ed., Responses to Sexism. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English. Kemper, Susan (1984). When to speak like a lady. Sex Roles 10(5-6):435-443. Klecka, C.O. & D.V. Heler (1977). Sex-role stereotyping in English usage. Sex Roles 3(3): 257-263. Kramerae, Cheris (1977). Perceptions of female and male speech. Language and Speech 20)2):151-161. _____ (1978). Women's and men's ratings of their own and ideal speech. Communication Quarterly 26(2):1-12. Packer, Jaclyn (1986). Sex differences in perception of street harassment. Women and Therapy 5:331-338. Philipsen, Gerry (1975). Speaking 'like a man' in Teamsterville: Culture patterns in role enactment in an urban neighbourhood. Quarterly Journal of Speech 61:13- 22. Rakos, Lana F. (1991). Gender on the Line: Women, the Telephone, and Community Life. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Rasmussen, Jeffrey Lee & Barbara E. Moley (1986). Impression formation as a function of the sex role appropriateness of linguistic behavior. Sex Roles 14(3/4):149-161. Rosenkrantz, P., et al. (1968). Sex-role stereotypes and self- concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 32(3):287-295. Shibamoto, Janet S. (1987). The womanly woman: Manipulation of stereotypical and non-stereotypical features of Japanese female speech. In S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender & Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 26-49. Shimanoff, Susan B. (1983). The role of gender in linguistic references to emotive states. Communication Quarterly 31(3):174-179. Stivers, Camilla (1992). 'Look like a lady, act like a man': The dilemma of leadership. Chapter 4 of C. Stivers, Gender Images in Public Administration. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Warshay, Diana W. (1972). Sex differences in language style. In C. Savilios-Rothschild, ed., Toward a Sociology of Women. Lexington, Mass.: Xerox College Publishing, 3-9. Williams, J.E., H. Giles & J.R. Edwards (1977). Comparative analyses of sex-trait stereotypes in the United States, England, and Ireland. In Y.H. Poortinga, ed., Basic Problems in Cross-Cultural Psychology. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlander. V. Studies of Sex Differences in Linguistic Forms A. Pronunciation/Articulatory Differences Austin, William M. (1965). Some social aspects of paralanguage. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 11(1):31-39. Benjamin, Barbaranne J. (1986). Dimensions of the older female voice. Language & Communication 6(1/2):35-46. Brend, Ruth (1975). Male-female intonation patterns in American English. In B. Thorne & N. Henley , eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 84-87. Edelsky, Carole (1979). Question intonations and sex roles. Language in Society 8(1):15-32. Emanuel, F. & A. Scarzini (1979). Vocal register effects on vowel spectral noise and roughness: Findings for adult females. Journal of Communication Disorders 12(3):263- 272. Haas, Mary (1944). Men's and women's speech in Koasati. Language 20:142-149. Henton, Caroline G. & R.A.W. Bladon (1985). Breathiness in normal female speech: Inefficiency versus desirability. Language and Communication 5(3):221-227. Hu, Mingyang (1991). Feminine accent in the Beijing vernacular: A sociolinguistic investigation. Journal of the Chinese Langauge Teachers Association 26(1):49-54. Kimball, Geoffrey (1987). Men's and women's speech in Koasati: A reappraisal. International Journal of American Linguistics 53(1):30-38. Kroskrity, Paul (1983). On male and female speech in the Pueblo southwest. International Journal of American Linguistics 49(1):88-90. McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1978). Intonation in a man's world. Signs 3(3):541-559. Sachs, Jacqueline, Lieberman, Philip and Donna Erickson (1973). Anatomical and cultural determinants of male and female speech. In R.W. Shuy and R.W. Fasold, eds., Language Attitudes: Curent Trends and Prospects. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 74-84. Taylor, Allan (1982). 'Male' and 'female' speech in Gros Ventre. Anthropological Linguistics 24(3):301-307. Trudgill, Peter (1975). Sex, covert prestige, and linguistic change in the urban English of Norwich. In B. Thorne & N. Henley , eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 88-103. Tuomi, S.K. & J. Fischer (1979). Characteristics of simulated sexy voice. Folia Phoniatrica 31: 242-249. Williams, Lynn (1983). The pronunciation of women: Some Spanish evidence. Language & Communication 3(2):171- 190. B. Grammatical and/or Syntactic Differences Barron, Nancy (1971). Sex-typed language: The production of grammatical cases. Acta Sociologica 14(1-2):24-42. Cameron, Deborah, Fiona McAlinden & Kathy O'Leary (1989). Lakoff in context: The social and linguistic functions of tag questions. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 74-93. Conners, Kathleen (1971). Studies in feminine agentives in selected European languages. Romance Philology 24: 573- 598. Dubois, Betty Lou & Isabel Crouch (1975). The question of tag questions in women's speech: They don't really use more of them, do they? Language in Society 4(3):289-294. Hill, Janet H. (1987). Women's speech in modern Mexicano. In S. Philips, S. Steele, & C. Tanz, eds. Language, Gender, and Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 121-160. Nissen, Uwe Kjr (1986). Sex and gender specification in Spanish. Journal of Pragmatics 10(6):725-738. Ordoubadian, Reza (1979). Sexism and language structure. In W. Wlck & P. L. Garvin, eds., The Fifth LACUS Forum 1978. Columbia, SC: Hornbeam Press, 415-421. Windfield, Helen R., Chandler, Margaret A. & Darryl L. Bassett (1989). Tag questions and powerfulness: Quantitative and qualitative analyses of a course of psychotherapy. Language in Society 18(1):77-86. C. Lexical Differences Abu-Haidar, Farida (1989). Are Iraqi women more prestige conscious than men? Sex differentiation in Baghdadi Arabic. Language in Society 18(4):471-481. Bakir, M. (1986). Sex differences in the approximation to standard Arabic: A case study. Anthropological Linguistics 28(1):3-9. Brouwer, Dede, Marinel Gerritsen & Dorian de Haan (1979). Speech differences between women and men: On the wrong track? Language in Society 8(1):33-50. Cherry, Kittredge (1987). Womansword: What Japanese words say about women. Tokyo: Kodansha International. Edwards, A.D. (1976). Social class and linguistic choice. Sociology 10:101-110. Edwards, Viv (1989). The speech of British Black women in Dudley, West Midlands. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 33-50. Holmes, Janet (1986). Functions of 'you know' in women's and men's speech. Language in Society 15(1):1-22. ______ (1988). Of course: a pragmatic particle in New Zealand women's and men's speech. Australian Journal of Linguistics. 8: 49-74. ______ (1988). Sort of in New Zealand women's and men's speech. Studia Linguistica 42:2. ______ (1990). Hedges and boosters in women's and men's speech. Language & Communication 10(3):185-206. Holmquist, J.C. (1985). Social correlates of a linguistic variable: A study in a Spanish village. Language in Society 14(2):191-204. Mills, Jane (1989). Womanwords. New York: Longman. [A dictionary on the origin & development of over 300 words used for and about women] Nowaczyk, Ronald H. (1982). Sex-related differences in colour lexicon. Language and Speech 25(3):257-265. Sanders, J.S. & W.L. Robinson (1979). Talking and not talking about sex: Male and female vocabularies. Journal of Communication 29(2):2-30. Singer, D., J. Avedon, R. Hering, A. McCann & C. Sacks (1977). Sex differences in the vocabulary of college students. The Journal of Sex Research 13:267-273. Steckler, Nicole A. & William E. Cooper (1980). Sex differences in color naming of unisex apparel. Anthropological Linguistics 22(9):373-381. Swacker, Marjorie (1975). The sex of the speaker as a sociolinguistic variable. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds. , Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 76-83. D. Differences in the Use/Frequency of Expletives and Graffitti Arluke, Arnold, Kutakoff, Lanny, and Jack Levin (1987). Are the times changing? An analysis of gender differences in sexual graffiti. Sex Roles 16(1/2):1-8. Bailey, Lee Ann & Lenora A. Timm (1976). More on women's--and men's--expletives. Anthropological Linguistics 18(9):438-449. Bruner, Edward M. & Jane Paige Kelso (1980). Gender differences in graffiti: A semiotic perspective. Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):239-252. Cole, Caroline M. (1991). 'Oh wise women of the stalls....' Discourse & Society 2(4):401-411. Coyne, James C., Richard C. Sherman & Karen O'Brien (1978). Expletives and woman's place. Sex Roles 4:827-835. De Klerk, Vivian (1990). Slang: A male domain? Sex Roles 22(9/10):589-606. ______ (1991). Expletives: Men only? Communications Monographs 58:156-169. ______ (1992). How taboo are taboo words for girls? Language in Society 21(2):277-290. Fine, Marlene G. & Fern L. Johnston (1984). Female and male motives for using obscenity. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 3(1):59-74. Hopper, Robert, Larry G. Coleman & John A. Daly (1980). Expletives and androgyny. Anthropological Linguistics 22(3):131-137. Hughes, Susan E. (1992). Expletives of lower working-class women. Language in Society 21(2): 291-304. Jay, Timothy (1992). Cursing in America. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Oliver, M.M. & Joan Rubin (1975). The use of expletives by some American women. Anthropological Linguistics 17(5):191-208. Rieber, Robert W., Carl Wiedemann & Jeanette d'Amato (1979). Obscenity: Its frequency and context of usage as compared in males, nonfeminist females, and feminist females. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 8(3):201-223. Risch, Barbara (1987). Women's derogatory terms for men: That's right, "dirty" words. Language in Society 16(3):353- 358. Selnow, Gary W. (1985). Sex differences in uses and perception of profanity. Sex Roles 12(3/4): 303-312. Staley, Constance (1978). Male-female use of expletives: A heck of a difference in expectations. Anthropological Linguistics 29(8):367-380. Wilson, Eileen (1974). Men's Language and Women's Language: Up against the Wall. Unpublished M.A. thesis, UC Davis. E. General Studies/Cross-Linguistic Studies Bell, Amelia R. (1990). Separate people: Speaking of Creek men and women. American Anthropologist 92:332-345. Blakar, R.M. (1979). How sex roles are represented, reflected, and conserved in the Norwegian language. In R. Rommetveit & R.M. Blakar, eds., Studies of Language, Thought, and Verbal Communication. New York: Academic Press. Brouwer, Dd (1989). Gender variation in Dutch: A sociolinguistic Study of Amsterdam Speech. Dordrecht: Foris. Crosby, Faye & Linda Nyquist (1977). The female register: An empirical study of Lakoff's hypotheses. Language in Society 6:313-322. DeStefano, Johanna S. (1979). Sex differences in languages: A cross-national perspective with emphasis on English. Language Sciences 1(2):316-324. Dixon, Roland, B. & Alfred L. Kroeber (1903). The native languages of California. American Anthropologist 5(1):1- 26. [Sex differences are discussed on p. 15.] Flannery, Regina (1946). Men's and women's speech in Gros Ventre. International Journal of American Linguistics 12:133-135. Furfey, P.H. (1944). Men's and women's language. American Catholic Sociological Review 5:218-223. Grootaers, William A. (1952). Quelques remarques concernant la langage des femmes. Orbis 1:82-83. _____(1952). Differences entre langage masculin et feminin. Orbis 1:84-85. Jabbra, Nancy W. (1980). Sex roles and language in Lebanon. Ethnology 19(4):459-474. Klans, Flora (1924). Die Frauensprache bei den primitiven Vlkern. Imago 10:215; 296-313. Kramer, Cheris (1974). Folk-linguistics: Wishy-washy mommy talk. Psychology Today 8(1):32-85. Lasch, Richard (1907). Uber Sondersprachen und ihre Entstehung: I, Frauensprachen.Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Vienna. Mitteil 37:89-101. McMillan, Julie R., A. Clifton, Diane McGrath, & Wanda S. Gale (1977). Women's language: Uncertainty or interpersonal sensitivity and emotionality? Sex Roles 3(6):545-559. Moore, Samule F., Shaffer, Leigh, Goodsell, Dorothy & Greg Baringoldz (1983). Gender or situationally determined spoken language differences? The case of the leadership situation. International Journal of Women's Studies 6(1):44-53. Parsons, Elsie Clews (1913). The Old-Fashioned Woman: Primitive Fantasies about Sex. New York: Putnam's Sons. [Includes a chapter entitled "Sex Dialects".] Pottier, Bernard (1972). Langage des hommes et langage des femmes en cocama. In Jacqueline M.C. Thomas & Lucien Bernot, eds., Langues et Techniques, Nature et Societe. Paris: Klincksieck. Saada, Lucienne (1970). Le langage des femmes tunisiennes. In David Cohen, ed., Melanges Marcel Cohen: Etudes de linguistique, ethnographie et sciences connexes offertes par ses amis et ses eleves a l'occasion de son 80eme anniversaire. The Hague: Mouton, 320-235. Taylor, Allan (1982). "Male" and "female" speech in Gros Ventre. Anthropological Linguistics 24(3):301-307. Thomas, Beth (1989). Differences of sex and sects: Linguistic variation and social networks in a Welsh mining village. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perpectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 51-60. Troemel-Ploetz, Senta (1982). Frauensprache: Sprache der Vernderung. Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag. VI. Sex Differences in Conversation and Small-Group Interaction Ainsworth-Vaughn, Nancy (1992). Topic transitions in physician-patient interviews: Power, gender, and discourse change. Language in Society 21(3):409-426. Albrecht, Terrance & Ralph E. Cooley (1980). Androgyny and communication strategies for relational dominance: An empirical analysis. In D. Nimmo,ed., Communication Yearbook 4. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 699-719. Aries, Elizabeth (1976). Interaction patterns and themes of males, females, and mixed groups. Small Group Behavior 7(1):7-18. Beattie, Geoffrey W. (1981). Interruption in conversational interaction, and its relation to the sex and status of the interactants. Linguistics 19:15-35. Bernard, Jessie (1973). Talk, conversation, listening and silence. In J. Bernard, The Sex Game. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bilous, Frances R. & Robert M. Krauss (1988). Dominance and accommodation in the conversational behaviours of same- and mixed-gender dyads. Language and Communication 8(3/4): 183-195. Brown, Penelope & Stephen Levinson (1978). Universals in language usage: Politeness phenomena. In E. Goody, ed., Questions and Politeness. London: Cambridge University Press, 256-289. Coates, Jennifer (1989). Gossip revisited: Language in all- female groups. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 94-122. Crawford, Mary & Roger Chaffin (1987). Effects of gender and topic on speech style. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 16(1):83-89. Crosby, Faye, Paul Jose, & William Wong-McCarthy (1981). Gender, androgyny, and conversational assertiveness. In C. Mayo & N. Henley, eds., Gender and Nonverbal Behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag. Crow, Brian (1983). Topic shifts in couples' conversations. In R. T. Craig & K. Tracy, eds., Conversational Coherence: Form, Structure and Strategy. Beverly Hills: Sage. Deakins, Alice H., C. Osterink, & T. Hoey (1987). Topics in same sex and mixed sex conversations. In L.B. Nadler, et al. (eds.), Advances in Gender and Communication Research. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 89-107. de Boer, Mieke (1987). Sex differences in language: Observations of dyadic conversations between members of the same sex. In D. Brouwer & D. de Haan (eds.), Women's Language, Socialization and Self-Image, pp. 148-163. Dindia, Kathryn (1987). The effects of sex of subject and sex of partner on interruptions. Human Communication Research 13(3):345-371. Drass, Kriss A. (1986). The effect of gender identity on conversation. Social Psychology Quarterly 49(4):294-301. Eakins, Barabara & Gene Eakins (1976). Verbal turn-taking and exchanges in faculty dialogue. In B.L. Dubois & I. Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 53-63. Edelsky, Carol (1981). Who's got the floor? Language in Society 10(3):383-422. Ehrenreich, Barbara (1981). The politics of talking in couples: Conversus interruptus and other disorders. Ms. (May):46-48. Fine, Marlene G. (1981). Soap opera conversations: The talk that binds. Journal of Comunication 31(3):97-107. Fishman, Pamel (1978). Interaction: The work women do. Social Problems 25:397-406. _____(1978). What do couples talk about when they're alone? In D. Burrtturff & E.L. Epstein, eds., Women's Language and Style. Akron, OH: L&S Books, 11-22. Gubb, Jenny (1980). Language and role in mixed- and single-sex groups. Language for Learning 2(1):3-10. Gnthner, Susanne (1992). The construction of gendered discourse in Chinese-German interactions. Discourse & Society 3(2):167-191. Haas, Adelaide and Mark A. Sherman(1982). Reported topics of conversation among same-sex adults. Communication Quarterly 30:332-342. Harding, Susan (1975). Women and words in a Spanish village. In R. Reiter, ed., Towards an Anthropology of Women. New York: Monthly Review Press, 283-308. Holmes, Janet (1987). Hedging, fencing and other conversational gambits: An analysis of gender differences in New Zealand speech. In A. Pauwels, ed., Women and Language in Australian and New Zealand society. Sydney: Australian Professional Publics., 59-79. _____ (1992). Women's talk in public contexts. Discourse & Society 3(2):131-150. Jones, Deborah (1980). Gossip: Notes on women's oral culture. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):193-198. Kennedy, Carol W. and Carl T. Camden (1981). Gender differences in interruption behavior: A dominance perspective. International Journal of Women's Studies 4(2):135-142. _____& _____ (1983). A new look at interruption. Western Journal of Speech Communication 47:45-58. Kuiper, Koenraad (1991). Sporting formulae in New Zealand English: Two models of male solidarity. In J. Cheshire, ed., English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 200-209. Lacoste, M. (1981). The old woman and the doctor: A contribution to the analysis of unequal linguistic exchanges. Journal of Pragmatics 5:169-180. Leet-Pellegrini, Helena (1980). Conversational dominance as a function of gender and expertise. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson & Philip Smith, eds., Language: Social Psychological Perspectives. Oxford: Pergamon, 97-104. Leto DeFrancisco, Victoria (1991). The sounds of silence: How men silence women in marital relations. Discourse & Society 2(4):413-423. Levin, Jack & Arnold Arluke (1985). An exploratory analysis of sex differences in gossip. Sex Roles 12(3/4):218-286. Maltz, Daniel & Ruth A. Borker (1982). A cultural approach to male-female miscommunication. In J.J. Gumperz, ed., Language and Social Identity. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 196-216. Mann, Brenda J. (1971). Bar talk. In J.P. Spradley & D.W. McCurdy, eds., Conformity and Conflict: Readings in Cultural Anthropology, 2nd ed. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 101-111. Markel, N.N., Prebor, L.D. and J.F. Brandt (1972). Biosocial factors in dyadic communication: Sex and speaking intensity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 23(1):11-13. Martin, Judith N. & Robert T. Craig (1983). Selected linguistic sex differences during initial social interactions of same- sex and mixed-sex student dyads. Western Journal of Speech Communication 47:16-28. _____, Long, J.F. and T.J. Saine (1976). Sex effects in conversational interaction: Another look at male dominance. Human Communication Research 2(4):356- 364. Mayes, Sharon S. (1979). Women in positions of authority: A case study of changing sex roles. Signs 4(3):556-568. Montgomery, Barbara M. and Robert W. Norton (1981). Sex differences and similarities in communicator style. Communication Monographs 48:121-132. Morse, Benjamine W. and Virginia A. Eman (1980). The construct of androgyny: An overview and implications for research. In C. L. Berryman & V.A. Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 76-90. Octigan, Mary and Sharon Niederman (1979). Male dominance in conversations. Frontiers 4(1):50-54. Parlee, Mary Brown (1979). Conversational Politics. Psychology Today (May):48-56. Pfeiffer, John (1985). Girl talk, boy talk. Science 85 (February):58-63. Preisler, Bent (1986). Linguistic Sex Roles in Conversation: Social Variation in the Expression of Tentativeness in English. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Rakow, Lana F. (1991). Gender on the Line: Women, the Telephone, and Community Life. Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Rysman, Alexander (1977). How the "gossip" becomes a woman. Journal of Communication 27(12):176-180. Singh, Rajendra & Jayant K. Lele (1990). Language, power, and cross-sex communication strategies in Hindi and Indian English revisited. Language in Society 19(4):541- 546. [A rebuttal of Valentine (1985)] Steinham, Gloria (1981). The politics of talking in groups: How to win the game and change the rules. Ms. (May):43, 45, 85-89. Strodtbeck, R.L. (1956). Sex role differentiation in jury deliberations. Sociometry 19:3-11. Suls, Jerry M. (1977). Gossip as social comparison. Journal of Communication 27(1):164-168. Swacker, Marjorie (1976). Women's verbal behavior at learned and professional conferences. In B.L. Dubois & I. Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 155-160. Swann, Joan (1989). Talk control: An illustration from the classroom of problems in analysing male dominance of conversation. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 122-140. Talbot, Mary (1988). The operation was a success: Unfortunately the patient died. A comment on 'Women and men speaking at the same time' by Murray and Covelli. Journal of Pragmatics 12:113-114. Tannen, Deborah (1982). Ethnic style in male-female conversation. In John J. Gumperz (ed.), Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 217-231. _____ (1990). You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: William Morrow & Co. Tiger, Virginia and Gina Luria (1978). Inlaws/outlaws: The language of women. In D. Burtturff and E.L. Epstein,eds., Women's Language and Style. Akron, OH: L& S Books, 1-10. Valentine, Tamara (1985). Sex, power and linguistic strategies in the Hindi language. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 15(1):195-211. West, Candace (1979). Against our will: Male interruptions of females in cross-sex conversation. In J. Orasanu, M. Slater & L. Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:81-100. ______ (1984). When the doctor is a 'lady': Power, status and gender in physician-patient dialogues. Symbolic Interaction 7:85-105. ______ (1985). Routine Complications. Troubles with Talk between Doctors and Patients. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ______ (1990). Not just 'doctors orders': directive-response sequences in patients' visits to women and men physicians. Discourse & Society 1(1):85-112, ______ & Angela Garcia (1988). Conversational shift work: A study of topical transitions between women and men. Social Problems 35:551-575. Wiley, Mary Glenn and Dale E. Woolley (1988). Interruptions among equals: Power plays that fail. Gender & Society 2(1):90-102. Withers, Jean (1975). Don't talk while I'm interrupting. Ms. (March):106. Wodak, Ruth (1981). Women relate, men report: Sex differences in language behavior in a therapeutic group. Journal of Pragmatics 5:261-286. Wood, Marion (1966). The influence of sex and knowledge of communication effectiveness on spontaneous speech. Word 22:112-137. Woods, Nicola (1988). Talking shop: Sex and status as determinants of floor apportionment in a work setting. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. London: Longman, 141-157. Yerkovich, Sally (1977). Gossiping as a way of speaking. Journal of Communication 27(1): 192-196. Zimmerman, Don and Candace West (1975). Sex roles, interruptions and silences in conversation. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 105-129. VII. Issues of Status, Politeness, Power, and "Face" Aiken, Lewis & Richard L. Zweigenhaft (1978). Signature size, sex, and status in Iran. Journal of Social Psychology 106:273-274. Arveda Kissling, Elizabeth (1991). Street harassment: The language of sexual terrorism. Discourse & Society 2(4):451- 460. Baroni, M.R. & V. D'Urso (1984). Some experimental findings about the question of politeness and women's speech. Language in Society 13:67-72. Brown, Penelope (1980). How and why are women more polite: Some evidence from a Mayan community. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 111-136. _____ (1990). Gender, politeness and confrontation in Tenejapa. Discourse Processes 13(1): 123-141. Brouwer, Dde (1982). The influence of the addressee's sex on politeness in language use. Linguistics 20:697-711. Callary, R.E. (1974). Status perception through syntax. Language and Speech 17(2):187-192. Deuchar, Margaret (1989). A pragmatic account of women's use of standard speech. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 27-32. Gardner, Carol B. (1984). 'Passing by': Street remarks, address rights, and the urban female. In John Baugh & Joel Scherzer (eds.), Language in Use: Readings in Sociolinguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 148-164. Gibbons, P., J. Busch & J.J. Bradac (1992). Powerful versus powerless language: Consequences for persuasion, impression formation and cognitive response. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 11(3): Henley, Nancy M. & Cheris Kramarae (1991). Gender, power and miscommunication. In Nicolas Coupland, ed., Miscommunication and Problematic Talk. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Herbert, Robert K. (1990). Sex-based differences in compliment behavior. Language in Society 19(2):201-224. Hoar, Nancy (1992). Genderlect, powerlect, and politeness. In L.A.M. Perry, L.H. Turner, & H.M. Sterk, eds. Constructing and Reconstructing Gender. The Links Among Communication, Language, and Gender. Albany: State University of New York, 127-136. Jorden, Eleanor H. (1974). Language--female and feminine. In B. Hoffer, ed., Proceedings of a U.S.-Japan Sociolinguistics Meeting. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 57-71. Keenan, Elinor (1974). Norm-makers, norm-breakers: Uses of speech by men and women in a Malagasy community. In J. Sherzer & R. Baumann, eds., Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 126-143. Lee, Matoko Y. (1976). The married woman's status and role as reflected in Japanese: An exploratory sociolinguistic study. Signs 1(4):991-999. Liska, Jo Walker, Elizabeth Mechling & Susan Stathas (1981). Differences in subjects' perceptions of gender and believability between users of deferential and non- deferential language. Communication Quarterly 29(12):40-48. Martin, Samuel (1964). Speech levels in Japan and Korea. In D. Hymes, ed., Language in Culture and Society. New York: Harper & Row, 407-415. Miller, Roy Andrew (1967). The Japanese Language. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. Muhlhausler, Peter (1991). Watching girls pass by in Tok Pisin. In J. Cheshire, ed., English around the world; Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 637-646. Noller, Patricia (1993). Gender and emotional communication in marriage: Different cultures or differential power? Journal of Language and Social Psychology 12(1-2): O'Barr, William & Bowman K. Atkins (1980). "Women's language" or "powerless language"? In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 93-110. Preston, Kathleen & Kimberly Stanley (1987). 'What's the worst thing...?' Gender-directed insults. Sex Roles 17(3/4):209-220. Sheehan, J.G. (1979). Level of aspiration in female stutterers: Changing times. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders 44(4):479-486. Shibamoto, Janet (1985). Japanese Women's Language. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Smith (Shibamoto), Janet (1992). Women in charge: Politeness and directives in the speech of Japanese women. Language in Society 21(1):59-82. Sherchock, Linda (1980). Psychological sex and rhetorical sensitivity. Implications for organizational communication. In C. Berryman & V. Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 91-111. Shick Case, Susan (1988). Cultural differences, not deficiencies: An analysis of managerial women's language. In S. Rose & L. Larwood, eds., Women's Careers: Pathways and Pitfalls. New York: Praeger, 41-63. Smith-Heffner, Nancy J. (1988). Women and politeness: The Javanese example. Language in Society 17(4):535-554. Takahara, Kumiko (1991). Female speech patterns in Japanese. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 92: 61-85. Wetzel, Patricia J. (1988). Are 'powerless' communication strategies the Japanese norm? Language in Society 17(4):555-564. Wood, L.S. & R.O. Kroger (1992). Politeness and forms of address. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 11(3): Woods, Nicola (1989). Talking shop: Sex and status as determinants of floor apportionment in a work setting. In J. Coates & D. Cameron, eds., Women in their Speech Communities. New Perspectives on Language and Sex. New York: Longman, 141-157. VIII. Conservatism vs. Innovation in Language Ashby, William (1981). The loss of the negative particle 'ne' in French. Language 57(3):674-687. Baker, Murtadha (1986). Sex differences in approximation to Standard Arabic: A case study. Anthropological Linguistics 28(1):73-79. Gal, Susan (1978). Peasant men can't get wives: Language change and sex roles in a bilingual community. Language in Society 7(1):1-16. Medecine, Bea (1987). The role of American Indian women in cultural continuity and transition. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press, 159-166. Nichols, Patricia C. (1976). Black women in the rural south: Conservative and innovative. In B.L. Dubois & I. Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 103-114. _____(1980). Women in their speech communities. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 140-149. Patella, Victoria M. & William Kuvlesky (1973). Situational variation in language patterns of Mexican-American boys and girls. Social Science Quarterly 53(4):855-864. Sol, Yolanda R. (1976). Sociocultural and sociopsychological factors in different language retentiveness by sex. In B.L. Dubois & I. Crouch, eds., The Sociology of the Languages of American Women. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University, 137-154. Troy, Jakeline (1987). The role of Aboriginal women in the development of contact languages in New South Wales: From the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century. In A. Pauwels, ed., Women and Language in Australian and New Zealand Society. Sydney: Australian Professional Publications, 155-169. Whiteford, L. (1980). Mexican-American women as innovators. In M. Melville, ed., Twice a Minority. St. Louis: The C .V. Mosby Co., 109-126. Zentella, Ana Celia (1987). Language and female identity in the Puerto Rican community. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press, 167-179. IX. The Generic Masculine and other Male-as-norm Phenomena Baron, Dennis (1981). The epicene pronoun: The word that failed. American Speech 56: 83-97. Bendix, Edward H. (1979). Linguistic models as political symbols: Gender and the generic 'he' in English. In J. Orasnu, M.K. Slater & L.L. Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:23-42. Bodine, Ann (1975). Androcentrism in prescriptive grammar: Singular 'they', sex-indefinite 'he' and 'he or she'. Language in Society 4(2):129-146. Beardsley, Elizabeth (1973-74). Referential genderization. Philosophical Forum 5(1/2): 285-293. Cooper, Robert (1984). The avoidance of androcentric generics. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 50:5-20. Crawford, M. & L. English (1984). Generic versus specific inclusion of women in language: Effects on recall. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 13:373-381. Dubois, Betty Lou & Isabel Crouch (1979). Man and its compounds in recent profeminist American English published prose. Papers in Linguistics 12(1/2):261ff. Gastil, John (1990). Generic pronouns and sexist langauge: The oxymoronic character of masculine generics. Sex Roles 23:629-643. Green, William H. (1977). Singular pronouns and sexual politics. College Composition and Communication 28:150- 153. Greene, K. & D.L. Rubin (1991). Effects of gender inclusive/exclusive language in religious discourse. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 10(2): Hofstadter, Douglas (1985). Changes in default words and images, engendered by rising consciousness. In D. Hofstadter, Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern. New York: Basic Books, 136-158. Hook, Donald (1989). Gender and number in American English personal pronouns. International Review of Applied Linguistics 27(1):64-66. -------- (1991). Toward an English epicene pronoun. International Review of Applied Linguistics 29(4):331-339. Huber, Joan (1976). On the generic use of male pronouns. The American Sociologist 11(2):89. Jacobson, Marxha B. & William R. Insko, Jr. (1985). Use of nonsexist pronouns as a function of one's feminist orientaion. Sex Roles 13(11/2):1-7. Khosroshahi, F. (1989). Penguins don't care, but women do: A social identity analysis of a Whorfian problem. Language in Society 18(4):505-525. Korsmeyer, Carolyn (1977). The hidden joke: Generic uses of masculine terminology. In M. Vetterling-Braggin, F. Elliston & J. English, eds., Feminism and Philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams, and Co. MacKay, Donald (1980). On the goals, principles, and procedures for prescriptive grammar: Singular 'they'. Language in Society 9(3):349-367. _____(1980). Personification and the pronoun problem. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):149-164. Martyna, Wendy (1978). What can 'he' mean? Exploring our use of the generic masculine. Journal of Communication 28(1):131-138. _____(1980). The psychology of the generic masculine. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 69-78. Mathiot, Madeleine (1979). Sex roles as revealed through referential gender in American English. In M. Mathiot, ed., Ethnolinguistics: Boas, Sapir, and Whorf Revisited. The Hague: Mouton, 1-48. McConnell-Ginet, Sally (1979). Prototypes, pronouns, and persons. In M.Mathiot, ed., Ethnolinguistics: Boas, Sapir, and Whorf Revisited. The Hague: Mouton, 63-84. Moulton, Janice , G.M. Robinson & C. Elias (1978). Sex bias in language use: 'Neutral' pronouns that aren't. American Psychologist 33:1032-1036. Newman, Michael (1992). Pronominal disagreements: The stubborn problem of singular epicene antecedents. Language in Society 21(3):447-476. Rubin, Donald & Kathryn Greene (1991). Effects of biological and psychological gender, age cohort, and interviewer gender on attitudes toward gender inclusive/exclusive language. Sex Roles 24:391-412. Salter, Marty M, Deborah Weider-Hatfield, & Donald L. Rubin (1983). Generic pronoun use and perceived speaker credibility. Communication Quarterly 31(2):180-183. Schneider, Joseph & Sally Hacker (1973). Sex role stereotyping and use of the generic 'man' in introductory texts: A case study of the sociology of sociology. The American Sociologist 8:12-18. Silveira, Jeanette (1980). Generic masculine words and thinking. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):165-178. Stanley, Julia P. (1977). Gender-marking in American English. In A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 43-76. Treichler, Paula A. & Francine Wattman Frank (1989). Common problems in sexist usage. In F.W. Frank & P.A. Treichler, eds., Language, Gender, and Professional Writing: Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 141-226. Trenholm, Sarah & W. Todd-de-Mancillas (1980). The effects of sexist language on interpersonal judgments. In C. Berryman & V. Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 61-75. Timm, Lenora (1978). Not mere tongue-in-cheek: The case for a common gender pronoun in English. International Journal of Women's Studies 1(6):555-565. Wilson, La Visa Cam (1978). Teachers' inclusion of males and females in generic nouns. Research in the Teaching of English 12:155-161. Wolfe, Susan J. (1989). The reconstruction of word meanings: A review of the scholarship. In F. W. Frank & P.A. Treichler, Language, Gender, and Professional Writing. Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern Language Association, 80-94. X. Gender Bias in the Lexicon August, Eugene R. (1990). Real men don't: Anti-male bias in English. In P. Eschholz, A. Rosa & V. Clark, eds., Language Awareness. New York: St. Martin's Press, 289-300. Gershuny, H.Lee (1975). Public doublespeak--The dictionary. College English 37:938-942. _____(1977). Sexism in dictionaries and texts: Omissions and commissions. In A.P. Nilsen et al., eds., Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 143-160. Graham, Alma (1975). The making of a non-sexist dictionary. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 57-73. Hampares, Katherine (1976). Sexism in Spanish lexicography. Hispania 59:100-109. Kahn, Lynda (1975). Sexism in everyday speech. Social Work 20(1):65-67. Ng, Sik Hung , et al. (1993). Polarized semantic change of words associated with females and males. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 12(1-2). Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Sexism as shown through the English vocabulary. In A.P. Nilsen, et al., eds., Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 27-42. ______ (1990). Sexism in English: A 1990s update. In P. Eschholz, A. Rosa & V. Clark, eds., Language Awareness. New York: St. Martin's Press, 277-287. Schulz, Muriel (1975). The semantic derogation of women. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 64-73. Strainchamps, Ethel (1972). Our sexist language, In V. Gornick & B. K. Moren, eds., Women in Sexist Society. New York: Mentor, 347-361. Treichler, Paula A. (1989). From discourse to dictionary. How sexist meanings are authorized. In F. W. Frank & P.A. Treichler, Language, Gender, and Professional Writing. Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern Language Association, 51-79. XI. References to the Sexes Abd-el-Jawad, Hassan R.S. (1988/89). Language and women's place with special reference to Arabic. Unpublished ms. (Dept. of English, Yarmouk Univ., Irbid, Jordan) Allen, Iriving L. (1984). Male sex roles and epithets for ethnic women in American slang.Sex Roles 11:43-50. Atkinson, D. (1987). Names and titles: Maiden name retention and the use of Ms. Journal of the Atlantic Provinces Linguistic Association 9:56-83. Connor, Jane, Fiona Byrne, Jodi Mindell, Donna Colan & Elizabeth Nixon (1986). Use of the titles Ms., Miss, or Mrs.: Does it make a difference? Sex Roles 14(9/10):545-549. Dion, Kenneth L. (1987). What's in a title? The Ms. stereotype, and images of women's titles of address. Psychology of Women Quarterly 11:21-36. Heilman, Madeline (1975). Miss, Mrs., Ms. or none of the above? American Psychologist 30(4):516-518. Hook, D. (1974). Sexism in English pronouns and forms of address. General Linguistics 14(2):86-96. Kramer, Cheris (1975). Sex-related differences in address systems. Anthropological Linguistics 17(5):198-210. Kupper, Susan J. (1990). Surnames for Women; a Decision- Making Guide. Jefferson: McFarland & Co. Lassiter, Mary (1983). Our Names, Our Selves. London: Heinemann.Lawson, E.D. (1974). Women's first names: A semantic differential analysis. Names 22(2): 52-58. Lebell, Sharon (1988). Naming Ourselves, Naming Our Children: Resolving the Last Name Dilemma. Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press. Nilson, Alleen Pace (1984). Greetings and salutations in a new age. Language in Society 13: 245-247. Penfield, Joyce (1987). Surnaming: The struggle for personal identity. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press, 117-129. Rubin, Joan (1986). How does the way women are referred to and described affect their participation in development and democracy. In J. Fishman, et al., eds., The Fergusonia impact. Vol. 2, Sociolinguistics and the sociology of language. New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 315-324. Shepelak, Norma J., Darlene Ogden & Diane Tobin-Bennett (1984). The influence of gender labels on the sex typing of imaginary occupations. Sex Roles 11(11/12):983-996. Slater, Anne Saxton & Saul Feinman (1985). Gender and phonology of North American first names. Sex Roles 13(7/8):429-440. Stannard, Una (1977). Mrs. Man. San Francisco: Germain Books. Wolfson, Nessa & Joan Manes (1980). Don't "Dear" me! In S. McConnell-Ginet, Sally, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 79-92. Yusuf, K. (1989). English imposed sexism in the Yoruba language: The case of 'baby' and 'Aya'. Women and Language 12:27-30. XII. Developmental Aspects of Sex Differences in Language Bellinger, D. & J.B. Gleason (1982). Sex differences in parental directives to young children. Sex Roles 8:1123- 1139. Berko-Gleason, Jean (1987). Sex differences in parent-child interaction. In S. Philips, S. Steele, and C. Tanz, eds., Language, gender and sex in comparative perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 189-199. Blaubergs, Maija (1975). On 'The nurse was a doctor.' In R. Ordoubadian and W. von Raffler-Engle,eds., Views on Language. Murfreesboro, Tenn.: Inter-University Publishing, 87-95. Brownell, Winifred & Dennis Smith (1973). Communication patterns, sex, and length of verbalization of speech of 4- year-old children. Speech Monographs 40:159-167. Cahill, Spencer (1986). Language practices and self- definition: The case of gender identity acquisition. Sociological Quarterly 27(3):295-311. Camras, Linda (1984). Children's verbal and nonverbal communication in a conflict situation. Ethology and Sociobiology 5:257-268. Cherry, Louise & Michael Lewis (1976). Mothers and two- year-olds: A study of sex diffentiated aspects of verbal interaction. Developmental Psychology 12(4):278-282. _____ & _____ (1978). Differential socialization of girls. In N. Waterson & C. Snow, eds., The Development of Communication. New York: Wiley, 189-197. Condry, John & Sandra Condry (1976). Sex differences: A study of the eye of the beholder. Child Development 47:812-819. Cook, Alicia Skinner, Janet J. Fritz, Barbara L. McCornack & Cris Visperas (1985). Early gender differences in the functional use of language. Sex Roles 12(9/10):909-915. DiPietro, Janet Ann (1981). Rough and tumble play: A function of gender. Developmental Psychology 17(1):50- 58. Edelsky, Carole (1976). The acquisition of communicative competence: Recognition of linguistic correlates of sex roles. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 22(1):47-59. _____ (1977). Acquisition of an aspect of communicative competence: Learning what it is to talk like a lady. In S. Ervin-Trip & C. Mitchel-Kernan, eds., Child Discourse. New York: Academic Press, 225-243. _____ (1978). Recognized sex-linked language. Language Arts 53(7):746-752. Edwards, John R. (1979). Social class differences and the identification of sex in children's speech. Journal of Child Language 6:121-127. Eisenberg, Ann R. & Catherine Garvey (1981). Children's use of verbal strategies in resolving conflicts. Discourse Processes 4:149-170. Engle, Marianne (1980). Family influences on the language development of young children. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):259-266. Esposito, Anita (1979). Sex differences in children's conversation. Language and Speech 22(3):213-220. Fichtelius, Anna, Irene Johansson & Kerstin Nordin (1980). Three investigations of sex-associated speech variation in day school. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3): 219-226. Filmer, H.T. & Leslie Haswell (1977). Sex-role stereotyping in English usage. Sex Roles 3(3): 257-263. Fine, Gary Alan (1977). Social components of children's gossip. Journal of Communication 27(1):181-185. Fischer, John L. (1958). Social influences on the choice of a linguistic variable. Word 14:45-56. Flerx, Vicki C., Dorothy Fidler & Ronald Rogers (1976). Sex role stereotypes: Developmental aspects and early intervention. Child Development 47(4):998-1007. Gleason, Jean Berko (1973). Code switching in children's language. In T.E. Moore, ed., Cognitive Development and the Acquisition of Language. New York: Academic Press, 159-167. _____ (1987). Sex differences in parent-child interaction. In S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender & Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 189-199. Golinkoff, R. & G. Ames (1979). A comparison of fathers' and mothers' speech with their young children. Child Development 50:28-32. Goodwin, Marjorie Harness (1980). Directive-response speech sequences in girls' and boys' task activities. S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 157-163. _____ and Charles Goodwin (1987). Children's arguing. In S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender & Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 200-248. _____ (1988). Cooperation and competition across girls' and boys' task activities. In A. Todd & S. Fisher, eds., Gender and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 55-94. Greif, Esther Blank (1980). Sex differences in parent-child conversations. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):253-258. Haas, Adelaide (1979). The acquisition of genderlect. In J. Orasanu, M.K. Slater & L. Loeb Alder, eds., Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:101-114. Harris, L.J. (197). Sex differences in the growth and use of language. In E. Donelson & J. Fullahorn, eds., Women: A Psychological Perspective. New York, Wiley, 79-94. Hyde, Janet S. (1984). Children's understanding of sexist language. Developmental Psychology 20:697-706. Klann-Delius, Gisela (1981). Sex and language acquisition: Is there any influence. Journal of Pragmatics 5:1-25. Koenigsknecht, Roy A. & Philip Friedman (1976). Syntax development in boys and girls. Child Development 47(4):1109-1115. Meditch, Andrea (1975). The development of sex-specific speech patterns in young children. Anthropological Linguistics 17(1):19-24. Paludi, Michel A. & Dominic F. Gullo (1986). The effect of sex labels on adults' knowledge of infant development. Sex Roles 16(1/2):19-30. Powell, Robert C. (1979). Sex differences and language learning: A review of the evidence. Audio-Visual Language Journal 17(1):19-24. Robin, J., Z. Luria & F. Provenzano (1976). The eye of the beholder: Parents' view of sex of new-borns. In A. Kaplan & J. Bean, eds., Beyond Sex Role Stereotypes: Readings Toward a Psychology of Androgyny. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. [NOF-UCD] Sachs, Jacqueline (1987). Preschool boys' and girls' language use in pretend play. In S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender & Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 178-188. _____, Philip Lieberman, & Donna Erickson (1973). Anatomical and cultural determinants of male and female speech. In R.W. Shuy & R. Fasold, eds., Language Attitudes: Current Trends and Prospects. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 74-83. Schachter, F.F., E. Shore, R. Hodapp, S. Chalfin & C. Bundy (1978). Do girls talk earlier? Mean length of utterance in toddlers. Developmental Psychology 14:388-392. Schieffelin, Bambi B. (1987). Do different worlds mean different words? An example from Papua New Guinea. In S.U. Philips, S. Steele & C. Tanz, eds., Language, Gender & Sex in Comparative Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 249-260. Schneiderman, Eta (1978). Sex differences in the development of children's ethnic and language attitudes. Cahiers linguistiques d'Ottawa 6:1-21. Sheldon, Amy (1990). 'Kings are royaler than queens': Language and socialization. Young Children (January):4-9. ______ (1990). Pickle fights: Gendered talk in preschool disputes. Discourse Processes 13(5): 5-31. Smith, P.K. & L. Daglish (1977). Sex differences in parent and infant behavior in home. Child Development 48:1250- 1254. Steedman, C., Urwin, C. & V. Wolkerdine, eds. (1985). Language, gender and childhood. Boston: Routledge. Thorne, Barrie (1986). Children and gender: Constructions of difference. In D. Rhode, ed., Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference. New Haven: CT: Yale University Press, 100-113. Van Alphen, Ingrid (1987). Learning from your peers: The acquisition of gender-specific speech styles. In D. Brouwer, & D. de Haan, eds., Women's Language, Socialisation and Self-Image. Dordrecht: Foris, 58-75. Vigorito, J. et al. (1971). Speech perception in infants. Science 171(1):303-306. West, Candace & Don H. Zimmerman (1977). Women's place in everyday talk: Reflections on parent-child interaction. Social Problems 24(5):521-529. Whyte, J. (1984). Observing sex stereotypes and interactions in the school lab and workshop. Educational Review 36:75-86. XIII. Sex Differences in Nonverbal Communication Argyle, Michael (1973). The syntaxes of bodily communication. International Journal of Psycholinguistics 2:71-92. Austin, W.M. (1965). Some social aspects of paralanguage. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 11:31-39. Baxter, James C., Daniel Druckman & Richar M. Rozelle (1982). Nonverbal communication: Survey, Theory, and Research. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Birdwhistell, Ray L. (1970). Masculinity and femininity as display. In R.L. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 39-46. Blahna, Loretta (1975). A survey of the research on sex differences in non-verbal communication. In B. Eakins, G. Eakins & B. Lieb-Brilhart, eds., Womens (and Men's) Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication Association, 28-34. Bradac, J.J., M. O'Donnell & C.H. Tardy (1984). Another stab at a touchy subject: Affective meaning of touch. Women's Studies in Communication 7:38-50. Buchanan, Douglas R., M. Goldman & R. Juhnke (1977). Eye contact, sex and the violation of personal space. The Journal of Social Psychology 103:19-25. Cooke, B.G. (1980). Nonverbal communication among Afro- Americans: An initial clarification. In R.L. Jones, ed., Black Psychology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harper & Row. Dierks-Stewart, Kathi (1980). Sex differences in nonverbal communication: An alternative perspective. In Berryman, Cynthia L. & Virginia A. Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 112-121. Ellyson, S.L., J.F. Dovidio & R. Corson (1981). Visual behavior differences in females as a function of self-perceived expertise. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 5:164-171. Feldstein, Stanley & Aron W. Siegman (1978). Nonverbal Behavior and Communication.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fischer, J.D. & D. Byrne (1975). Too close for comfort: Sex differences in response to invasion of personal space. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32:15-21. Frances, Susan J. (1979). Sex differences in nonverbal behavior. Sex Roles 5:519-535. Frieze, I.R. & S.J. Ramsey (1970). Nonverbal maintenance of traditional sex roles. Journal of Social Issues 32(3):133- 141. Fromme, D.K. & D.C. Beam (1974). Dominance and sex differences in nonverbal responses to differential eye contact. Journal of Research in Personality 8:76-87. Halberstadt, amy G. (1983). Gender and nonverbal behavior: Of relevance and rigor. Semiotica 45 (3/4):351-369. Hall, Judith A. (1978). Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues. Psychological Bulletin 85: 845-857. ______ (1984). Nonverbal Sex Differences: Communication Accuracy and Expressive Style. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Hanna, Judith Lynne (1988). Dance, Sex, and Gender. Signs of Identity, Dominance, Defiance, and Desire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Henley, Nancy M. (1975). Power, sex, and nonverbal communication. In B. Thorne & N. Henley, eds., Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 184-202. _____ (1977). Body Politics: Power, Sex and Nonverbal Communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. _____ & Jo Freeman (1975). The sexual politics of interpersonal behavior. In Jo Freeman, ed., Women: A Feminist Perspective. Palo Alto: Mayfield, 391-401. Kennedy, Carl & Carl Camden (1984). Interruptions and nonverbal gender differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 8(2):91-108. Klein, Zdenek (1984). Sitting postures in males and females. Semiotica 48(1/2):119-131. LaFrance, Marianne & Clara Mayo (1978). Moving Bodies: Nonverbal Communication in Social Relationships. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. _____& _____(1979). A review of nonverbal behaviors of women and men. The Western Journal of Speech Communication 43:96-107. _____& _____ (1980). The nonverbal display of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38(1):36-49. Leffler, Ann, Dair Gillespie & Joseph C. Conaty (1982). The effects of status differentiation on nonverbal behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly 45:153-161. Major, B. (1981). Gender patterns in touching behavior. In C. Mayo & N.M. Henley, eds., Gender and Nonverbal Behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag. Mayo, Clara & Nancy Henley, eds. (1981). Gender and Nonverbal Behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag. Mulac, Anthony, L. B. Studley, J.M. Wiemann & J.J. Bradac (1987). Male/female gaze in same-sex and mixed-sex dyads. Human communication Research 13(3):323-343. Murray, Stephen O. & Lucile H. Covelli (1988). Women and men speaking at the same time. Journal of Pragmatics 12. Nguyen, Tuan, Richard Heslin & Michele L. Nguyen (1975). The meaning of touch: Sex differences. Journal of Communication 25(3):92-103. Smith Althea (1983). Nonverbal communication among black female dyads: an assessment of intimacy, gender and race. Journal of Social Issues 39(3):55-67. Vrugt, Anneke & Ada Kerkstra (1984). Sex differences in nonverbal communication. Semiotica 50(1/2):1-41. Weitz, Shirely (1976) Sex differences in nonverbal communication. Sex Roles 2(2):175-184. Wolfgang, Aaron (1979). Nonverbal behavior: Applications and cultural implications. New York: Academic Press. XIV. Sex Differences/Sexism in Literature Borker, David & Olga K. Garnica (1980). Male and female speech in dramatic dialogue: A stylistic analysis of Chekovian character. Language and Style 13(4):3-28. Burtturff, D. & E.L. Epstein, eds. (1978). Women's Language and Style. Akron OH: L&S Books Cooper, Pamela (1987). Sex-role stereotypes of stepparents in children's literature. In L.P. Stewart & S. Ting-Toomey, eds., Communication, Gender, and Sex Roles in Diverse Interaction Contexts. Norwood, NJ: ABLEX, 61-82. Costello, Bonnie (1980). The "feminine" language of Marianne Moore. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 222-238. Donovan, Josephine, ed. (1971). Feminist Literary Criticism: Explorations in Theory. Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. _____ (1980). The silence is broken. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R, Borker & N. Furman, eds. , Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 205-218. Farrell, Thomas J. (1979). The female and male modes of rhetoric. College English 40(8). Fricke, Donna (1980). Phallic criticism: Some suggestions for remedying the unfortunate state of the art of literary criticism. In C. Berryman, & V. A. Eman, eds. , Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 41-50. Gallop, Jane (1980). Snatches of conversation. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 274-283. Gardiner, Judith Kegan (1981). On female identity and writing by women. Critical Inquiry 8: 347-361. Gershuny, H. Lee (1977). Sexism in the language of literature. In Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley , Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 107- 130. Gilbert , Sandra & Susan Gubar (1987). The War of the Words. Vol. 1 of No Man's Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. Heilbrun, Carolyn G. (1981). Women, men, theories, and literature. Profession 81:25-29. Hiatt, Mary P. (1976). The sexology of style. Language and Style 9(2):98-107. _____ (1977). The Way Women Write. New York: Teachers College Press. _____ (1980). Women's prose styles: A study of contemporary authors. Language and Style 13(4):36-45. Kamuf, Pegge (1980). Writing like a woman (1980). In S. McConnell-Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 284-299. Kolodny, Annette (1973). The land-as-woman: Literary convention and latent psychological content. Women's Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1(2):167-182. _____ (1975). The Lay of the Land. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. _____ (1980). Honing a habitable languagescape: Women's images for the New World frontiers. In S. McConnell- Ginet, R. Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 188-204. Kramarae, Cheris (1975). Excessive loquacity: Women's speech as represented in American etiquette books. In B. Eakins, G. Eakins & B. Lieb-Brilhart, eds., Women's (and Men's) Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication Association, 46-55. Lakoff, Robin Tolmach (1979). Stylistic strategies within a grammar of style. In Orasanu, Judith, Mariam K. Slater & Leonore Loeb Alder, eds. (1979). Language, Sex, and Gender: Does "la difference" make a difference? New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 327:53-80. Larsson, Lisbeth (1980). Women's reading. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):277-284. Martin, Wendy (1972). Seduced and abandoned in the New World: The image of woman in American fiction. In V. Gornick & B.K. Moran, eds., Woman in Sexist Society. New York: The New American Library, 329-346. Miller, Nancy K. (1980). Women's autobiography in France: For a dialectics of identification. In McConnell-Ginet, Sally, Ruth Borker & Nelly Furman, eds., Women and Language in Language and Society. New York: Praeger, 258-273. Miller, Casey & Kate Swift (1980). The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing for Writers, Editors, and Speakers. New York: Lippincott & Crowell. Millett, Kate (1969). Sexual Politics. New York: Avon/Equinox. _____ (1970) . Sexual politics (in literature). In Robin Morgan, ed., Sisterhood is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement. New York: Vintage, 349-376. Mills, Sara (1987). The male sentence. Language and Communication 7(34):189-198. Montefiore, Jan (1987). Feminism and Poetry: Language, Experience, Identity in Women's Writing. New York: Pandora. Morgan, William (1979). Images of men and maleness: A thematic approach to teaching women writers. College English 40(8). Pigott, Margaret B. (1979). Sexist roadblocks in inventing, focusing and writing. College English 40(8). Pringle, Mary Beth & Anne Stericker, eds. (1980) . Sex Roles in Literature. New York: Longman. Salem, J. Christine (1980). On naming the oppressor: What Woolf avoids saying in A Room of One's Own. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):209-218. Sandell, Karin (1980). The all-too-wonderful world of children's literature: Forty years of award-winning children's picture books. In C.L. Berryman& V.A. Eman, eds. , Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 27-40. Showalter, Elaine (1971). Women writers and the double standard. In V. Gornick & B.K. Moran, eds., Woman in Sexist Society. New York: The New American Library, 452-479. Stahlecker, Jame E. (1980). Parental and literature stereotype modeling. An investigation of their influences on second grade children. In Berryman, Cynthia L. & Virginia A. Eman, eds. , Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 10-26. Todd, Janet, ed. (1980). Gender and Literary Voice. New York: Homes & Meier Publishers, Inc. Treichler, Paula A. (1980). Verbal subversions in Dorothy Parker: "Trapped like a trap in a trap." Language and Style 13(4):46-61. Walker, Nancy (1988). A Very Serious Thing: Women's Humor and American Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Walters, Anna (1980). When women's reputations are in male hands: Elizabeth Gaskell and the critics. Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(4):405-414. Warshay, Diana W. (1972). Sex differences in language style. In C. Savilios-Rothschild, ed., Toward a Sociology of Women. Lexington, MA: Xerox College Publishing, 3-9. XV. Sexism in the Law and Courts Blodgett, Nancy (1986). "I don't think that ladies should be lawyers." ABA Journal (December 1): 48-53. Bosmajian, Haig, (1977). Sexism in the language of legislatures and courts. In Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley, Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 77-106. Collins, Ronald K.L. (1977). Language, history and the legal process: A profile of the "reasonable man." Rutgers- Camden Law Journal 8(2). [Available in UCD Law School] Cox, Gail Diane (1990). Reports track discrimination: Fourteen volumes chronicle how women are treated in court. The National Law Journal 12 , 26, November. Driedger, E.A. (1976). Are statues written for men only? McGill Law Journal 22 [A reply to Ritchie--see citation below] [Available in UCD Law School] Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs (1988). Social control: Law, public policy, force, and the threat of force. Ch. 6 of C. F. Epstein, Deceptive Distinctions. Sex, Gender, and the Social Order. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Hodgson, Beverly J. (1976). Sex texts and the First Amendment. Journal of Law and Education 5(2). MacDougall, Patricia (1972-73). Married women's common law right to their own surnames. Women's Law Reporter 1(3):2-14. MacKinnon, Catharine (1990). Legal perspectives on sexual difference. In D. Rhode, ed., Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 213- 225. Nemeth, Charlan, Jeffrey Endicott & Joel Wachtler (1976). From the '50's to the '70's: Women in jury deliberations. Sociometry 39(4):293-304. Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Sexism in the language of marriage. In Nilsen, Alleen Pace, Haig Bosmajian, H. Lee Gershuny & Julia P. Stanley , Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 131- 142. Ritchie, Marguerite E. (1975). Alice through the statutes. McGill Law Journal 21 (Winter). [Available in UCD Law School] Schafran, Lynn Hecht (1987). Documenting gender bias in the courts: Thetask force approach. Judicature 70(5):280- 290. West, Robin (1988). Jurisprudence and gender. The University of Chicago Law Review 55:1-72. Women in the Courts (1986). Report of the New Jersey Supreme Court Task Force on Women in the Courts. Fordham Urban Law Journal 15(1):11-198. XVI. Sexism in Education & in Instructional Materials Bertilson, H.S., Springer, D.K., & K.M. Fierke (1982). Underrepresentation of female referents as pronouns, examples, and pictures in introductory college textbooks. Psychological Reports 51:923-931. Brooks, Virginia R. (1982). Sex differences in student dominance behaviour in female and male professors' classrooms. Sex Roles 8:683-690. Burr, E. , Dunn, S. & N. Farquhar (1972). Women and the language of inequality. Social Education 36(2):841-845. Carelli, Anne O'Brien, ed. (1988). Sex Equity in Education. Springfield, ILL: Charles C. Thomas. Craig, D. & M.K. Pitts (1990). The dynamics of dominance in tutorial discussions. Linguistics 28: 125-138. deBie, Marloes, L.W. (1987). Classroom interaction: Survival of the fittest. In D. Brouwer & D. de Haan, eds., Women's Language, Socialisation and Self-Image. Dordrecht: Foris, 76-88. Elliott, John (1978). Sex role constraints in freedom of discussion: A neglected reality of the classroom. The New Era 55:147-155. Gabriel, Susan L. & Isaiah Smithson , eds. (1990). Gender in the Classroom: Power and Pedagogy. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Gershuny, H. Lee (1989). English handbooks 1979-85: Case studies in sexist and nonsexist usage. In F.W. Frank & P.A. Treichler, eds., Language, Gender, and Professional Writing: Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 95-104. Giacomini, M., Roze-Koker, P. & F. Pepitone-Arreola- Rockwell (1986). Gender bias in human anatomy textbook illustrations. Psychology of Women Quarterly 10:413-420. Gollnisk, Donna, Myra Sadler & Davis Sadler (1982). Beyond the Dick and Jane syndrome: Confronting sex bias in instructional materials. In Sex Equity Handbook for Schools. New York: Longman. Harrison, Linda (1975). Cro-magnon woman--in eclipse. The Science Teacher 42(4):8-11. Hartman, Pat L. & Elliot L. Judd (1978). Sexism and TESOL materials. TESOL Quarterly 12(4):383-393. Hoagland, Sarah Lucia (1980). Androcentric rhetoric in sociobiology. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):285-293. Holland, Dorothy C. & Margaret A. Eisenhart (1990). Educated in Romance. Women, Achievement and College Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Jenkins, M.M. (1983). Removing Bias: Guidelines for Student-Faculty Communcation. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association. Kiesler, Sara, Sproul, Lee S. & Jacquelynne S. Eccles (1985. Pool halls, chips, and war games: women in the culture of computing. Psychology of Women Quarterly 9:451-462. Kinman, Judity R. & Darwin L. Henderson (1985). An analysis of sexism in Newberry Medal Award books from 1977 to 1984. The Reading Teacher 38:885-889. McDonald, Scott M. (1988). Sex bias in the representation of male and female characters in children's picture books. Journal of Genetic Psychology 150(4):389-401. Neussel, Frank H. (1977). Resource guide: Sexism in language texts. Language Sciences 46:22-23. Nilsen, Alleen Pace (1977). Sexism in children's books and elementary teaching materials. In A.P. Nilsen, H. Bosmajian, H. L. Gershuny & J. P. Stanley, Sexism and Language. Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English, 161-180. Sadker, Myra & David Sadker (1985). Sexism in the schoolroom of the '80s. Psychology Today (March):54-57. Sandler, Bernice (1987). The classroom climate: A chilly one for women. In Carol Lasser, ed., Educating Men and Women Together: Coeducation in a Changing World. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Schmitz, Betty (1975). Sexism in French language textbooks. In R.C. Lafayette, ed., The Cultural Revolution in Foreign Language Teaching. Skokie, Ill.: National Textbook Co, 119-130. Scully, Diana & Pauline Bart (1973)., A funny thing happened on the way to the orifice: Women in gynecology textbooks. In Joan Huber, ed., Changing Women in Changing Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 283-288. Stitt, B.A. (1988). Building Gender Fairness in Schools. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Steedman, Carolyn, Urwin, Cathy & Valerie Walkerdine, eds. (1986). Language, Gender, and Childhood. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Swann, Joan (1992). Girls, Boys and Language. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. ______ & David Graddol (1988). Gender inequalities in classroom talk. English in Education 22(1):48-65. Thorne, Barrie (1986). Girls and boys together...but mostly apart: Gender arrangements in elementary schools. In W. W. Hartup & Z. Rubin, eds., Relationships and Development Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 167-184. Trepamer, Mary L. & Jane A. Romatowski (1985). Attributes and roles assigned to characters in children's writing: sex differences and sex-role perceptions. Sex Roles 13(5/6):263-272. U'ren, Marjorie B. (1971). The image of women in textbooks. In V. Gornick & B.K. Moran, eds. Woman in Sexist Society. New York: New American Library, 318-328. Wilkinson, Louise Cherry (1978). Teachers' inclusion of males and females in generic nouns. Research in the Teaching of English 12:155-161. Worby, Diana Zacharia (1979). In search of a common language: Women and educational texts. College English 4(1):101-105. XVII. Use of Language & Imagery in the Mass Media Barcus, F. Earle (1983). Images of Life on Children's Television. New York: CBS Educational and Professional Publishing. Berryman, Cynthia L. (1975). The language of women as a reflection of the image of women in a mass-circulation magazine: An analysis of Ladies Home Journal fiction, 1900-1920. In B. Eakins, G. Eakins, and B. Lieb- Brilhart, eds., Women's (and Men's) Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication Association, 56- 62. Bethel, Elizabeth R. (1975). Evaluation of traits of female characters on day-time TV soap operas. In B. Eakins, G. Eakins, and B. Lieb-Brilhart, eds., Women's (and Men's) Communication. Washington, D.C.: Speech Communication Association, 63-71. _____ and Bettie Horne (1978). The language of male-female humour in popular pulp. In Michael Paradis, ed., The Fourth LACUS Forum 1977. Columbia, SC: Hornbeam Press, 175-184. Bobo, Jacqueline (1992?). Black feminism and media studies. Special issue of Quarterly Review of Film and Video. Butler, Matilda & William Paisley (1979). Women and the Mass Media. Sourcebook for Research and Action. New York: Human Sciences Press. Chavez, Deborah (1985). Perpetuation of gender inequality: A content analysis of comic strips. Sex Roles 13(1/2):93- 102. Cooper, Virginia W. (1985). Women in popular music: A quantitative analysis of feminine images over time. Sex Roles 13(9/10):495-506. Courtney, Alice & Thomas Whipple (1983). Sex Stereotyping in Advertising. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Craig, Steve, ed. (1992). Men, Masculinity, and the Media. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Creedon, P.J., ed. (1989). Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Daddario, Gina (1992). Swimming against the tide: Sports Illustrated's imagery of female athletes in a swimsuit world. Women's Studies in Communication 15(1):49-64. Davidson, E.S., A. Yasuna & A. Tower (1979). The effects of television cartoons on sex-role stereotyping in young girls. Child Development 50:597-600. Davis, Albert J. (1984). Sex-differentiated behaviors in nonsexist picture books. Sex Roles 11(11/12):983-996. Downs, Chris (1981). Sex-role stereotyping on prime-time television. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 138:253- 258. Eisenstock, B. (1984). Sex role differences in children's identification with counterstereotypical televised portrayals. Sex Roles 10:417-430. Drew, Dan G. & Susan Miller (1977). Sex stereotyping and reporting. Journalism Quarterly 54(1):142-146. Fasold, Ralph (1987). Language policy and change: Sexist language in the periodical news media. In P. Lowenberg, ed., Language Spread and Language Planning. Washington, D.C.: Georgetetown University Press. ______, Yamada, H., Robinson, D. & S. Barish (1990). The language-planning effect of newspaper editorial policy: Gender differences in The Washington Post. Language in Society 19(4):521-539. Fine, Marlene (1981). Soap opera conversations: The talk that binds. Journal of Communication 31:97-107. Friedman, Leslie J. (1977). Sex Role Stereotyping in the Mass Media. New York: Garland. Geis, F.L., V. Brown, J. Jennings & N. Porter (1984). TV commercials as achievement scripts for women. Sex Roles 10(7-8):513-525. Goffman (1979). Gender Advertisements. New York: Harper Colophon. Gagnard, A. (1989). A sociocultural close-up: Body image in advertising. In P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 261-262. Gunter, Barrie (1986). Television and sex role stereotyping. London: J. Libbey & Co. Ltd. Halbur, Bernice & Mary Vandagriff (1987). Societal responses after death: A study of sex differences in newspaper death notices. Sex Roles 17(7/8):421-436. Lazier-Smith, L. (1989). A new 'genderation' of images to women. In P.J. Creedon, ed., Women in Mass Communication: Challenging Gender Values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 247-260. Messner, Michael, Duncan, Margaret C. & Kerry Jensen (1993). Separating the men from the girls: The gendered language of televised sports. Gender & Society 7(1):121- 137. Mills, Barbara (1992). Resisting change: Unchanging stereotypes in The New Yorker Cartoons. Unpublished ms., UCD. Peevers, Barbara H. (1979). Androgyny on the TV screen? An analysis of sex-role portrayal. Sex Roles 5(6):797-809. Sanders, Marlene & Marcia Rock (1988). Waiting for Prime Time: The Women of Television News. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Pres.. Sims, Barbara (1974). "She's got to be a saint, lord knows, I ain't": Feminine masochism in American country music. Journal of Country Music 5:24-30. Sternglanz, Sarah & Lisa Serbin (1974). Sex role stereotyping in children's television programs. Developmental Psychology 10(5):710-715. Toeplitz, Jerzy (1980). Women in the Media. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Trauth, Denise M. & John L. Huffman (1980). Stereotyping in advertising: Applying a scale for sexism. In C.L. Berryman and V.A. Eman, eds., Communication, Language, and Sex: Proceedings of the First Annual Conference. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 51-58. Tuchman, Gaye (1989). Edging Women Out: Victorian Novelists, Publishers, and Social Change. New Haven: Yale University Press. _____ (1979). Women's depiction by the mass media. Signs 4(3):528-542. _____, Arlene Kaplan Daniels, & James Benet, eds. (1978). Hearth and Home: Images of Women in the Mass Media. New York: Oxford University Press. Venkatesan, M. & Jean Losco (1975). Women in magazine ads: 1959-71. Journal of Advertising Research 15:49-54. Verna, Mary Ellen (1975). The female image in children's TV commercials. Journal of Broadcasting (Summer):301- 309. Wilkinson, Melvin (1976). Romantic love: The great equalizer? Sexism in popular music. The Family Coordinator 25:161-166. Wohletter, Maralinda & Bruce Lammers (1978). An analysis of roles in print advertisements over a 20-year span: 1958-1978. In J.C. Olsen, ed., Advances in Consumer Research. Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research. XVIII. Language and Feminism Baym, Nina (1987). 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Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 3-25. Scheman, Naomi (1980), Anger and the politics of naming. In S. McConnell-Ginet, R Borker & N. Furman, eds., Women and Language in Literature and Society. New York: Praeger, 174-187. Valian, Virginia (1977). Linguistics and feminism. In F. Ellison, J. English, & M. Vetterling, eds., Feminism and Philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams & Co., 154-166. XIX. Changing Sexist Language Adell, J. & H.D. Klein (1976). A Guide to Nonsexist Children's Books. Orlando, FL: Academy Press. Bate, Barbara (1975). Generic man, invisible woman: Language, thought, and social change. University of Michigan Papers in Women's Studies 2(1):83-95. _____ (1978). Nonsexist language use in transition. Journal of Communication 28:139-149. Blaubergs, Maija S. (1978). Changing the sexist language: The theory behind the practice. Psychology of Women Quarterly 2:244-261. Blaubergs, Maija S. (1980). An analysis of the classic arguments against changing sexist language. In C. Kramarae, ed., "The Voices and Words of Women and Men." Special issue of the Women's Studies International Quarterly 3(2/3):135-248. Capek, Mary Ellen S. (1987). A Woman's Thesaurus. An Index of Language Used to Describe and Locate Information by and about Women. New York: Harper & Row. Cofer, Charles N., Robert S. Daniels, Frances Y. Dunham and Walter Heimer (1977). Guidelines for nonsexist language in APA journals. American Psychologist 32:486-494. Dumond, Val (1991). The Elements of Nonsexist Usage: A Guide to Inclusive Spoken and Written English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Press. Ehrlich, Susan & Ruth King (1992). Gender-based language reform and the social construction of meaning. Discourse & Society 3(2):151-166. Frank, Francine (1989). Language plannning, language reform, and language change: A review of guidelines for nonsexist usage. In F. W. Frank & P.A. Treichler, Language, Gender, and Professional Writing. Theoretical Approaches and Guidelines for Nonsexist Usage. New York: Modern Language Association, 105-133. Frank, Francine & Frank Anshen (1983). Guidelines for non- discriminatory language usage In F. Frank & F. Anshen, Language and the Sexes. Albany: State University of New York Press, 107-114. _____ & _____ A selected list of guidelines for non-sexist usage. In F. Frank & F. Anshen, Language and the Sexes. Albany: State University of New York Press, 115-119. Henley, Nancy M. (1987). This new species that seeks a new language: On sexism in language and language change. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press, 3-27. Kramarae, Cheris & Paula A. Treichler (1985). A Feminist Dictionary. Boston: Pandora Press. _____ & Mercilee M. Jenkins (1987). Women take back the talk. In J. Penfield, ed., Woman and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press, 137-156. Maggio, Rosalie (1987). The Nonsexist Word Finder. A Dictionary of Gender-Free Usage. Boston: Beacon Press. Martyna, Wendy (1980). Beyond the he/man approach. Signs: 5:482-493. _____ (1983). Beyond the he/man approach: The case for nonsexist language. In B. Thorne, C. Kramarae, & N. Henley, eds., Language, Gender and Society. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 25-37. McMinn, Mark, Troyer, Pamela, Hannum, Laurel, & James Foster (1990). Teaching nonsexist language to college students. The Journal of Experimental Education 59(2):153-161. Miller, Casey & Kate Swift (1988). Handbook of Nonsexist Writing: For Writers, Editors & Speakers. New York: Harper-Collins. Newman, J. (1987). Girls are People Too: A Bibliography of Non-traditional Female Roles in Children's Books. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. Sorrels, Bobbye (1983). The Nonsexist Communicator; Solving theProblems of Gender and Awkwardness in Modern English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Withers, Barbara (1987). Resources for liberating the curriculum. In J. Penfield, ed., Women and Language in Transition. Albany: State University of New York Press, 65-114. 26. RUTH WODAK,Vienna University Chair, Department of Applied Linguistics Vienna University Berggasse 11/1/8 1090 Vienna Tel: 011/43/1/3103886-40 Fax: 011/43/1/3103886-23 Seminar: Sprachverhalten von Frau und Mann WS 1991/92 Themenliste und Bibiographie 1. Themenblock: Alltagsgespache Neustatter, Angela. Hyenas in Petticoats. 1990 London: Penguin. Tannen, Deborah. You just don't understand. 1990 New York: William and Morrow. Henley, Nancy. Korperstrategien. Frankfurt 1989: Fischer. Kotthoff, Helga (ed.). Das Gelachter der Geschlechter. 1988 Frankfurt: Fischer. 2. Themenblock: Weibliche und mannliche Sozialisation a) Peergroups Goodwin, Marjorie H. He said-she said. Talk as social organization among black children. 1990 Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Heath, Shirley B. Ways with words. 1989 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. b) Geschlechterrollen, crosscultural Gumperz, John J. (ed). Language and Social Identity. 1990 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Coupland, Nikolas (ed) Styles of Discourse. 1988 New York: Croom. Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice. 1982 Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Wodak, Ruth/ Schulz, Muriel. 1986 The Language of Love and Guilt. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Illich, Ivan. Gender. 1982 Toronto: Pantheon. 3. Themenblock: Frauen, Manner in Institutionen Lalouschek, Johanna/ Menz, Florian./ Wodak, Ruth. Alltag in der Ambulanz. 1990 Tubingen: Niemeyer. Wodak, Ruth/ Louschek, Johanna/ Menz, Florian. Sprachbarrieren. 1990 Wien: Edition Atelier. Tromel-Plotz, Senta. Gewalt durch Sprache. 1984 Frankfurt: Fischer. Stewart, Lea/ Ting-Toomey, Stella (eds). Communication, Gender, and Sex Roles in Diverse Interaction Contexts. 1987 Norwood: Ablex. Kedar, Leah. Power through Discourse. 1987 Norwood: Ablex. 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