Learning and Memory

What is Learning?
Learning means that you take inputs from your environment and encode them into your long-term memory. The diagram above demonstrates the process required for taking something and getting it stored permanently in your long-term memory. The key to learning how to use your time in class effectively is to understand that it takes an effort to learn material. Simply sitting in a class is not enough.

• First Store Sensory Inputs into Sensory Memory
  As you take in sensory inputs, such as the sights and sounds from a lecture, you have to actively attend to the inputs in order to move them into long-term memory. The first step involves the brief storage of sensory inputs into your sensory memory. Your sensory memory has a large capacity but can only hold information for a brief time. If you do not give these new inputs attention to move the information into your working memory it will fade away. You do not have time in class to take each piece of new information and act on it; therefore taking notes is essential to learning new material. Without them you will have no chance to later rehearse the information in your working memory.
• Next, Move Information into Working Memory to Build Long-Term Memories
  When you move information into your working memory, you simultaneously retrieve related information and schema from your long-term memory. By acting on the combination of the old and new information, you build new long-term memories. Because the effectiveness of your working memory depends on retrieving the schema related to the subject, it is important that you understand the schema for the subjects you are studying.
• Result: Outperform Fellow Students
  Numerous studies show that students who attend class regularly and actively engage with the material outperform their fellow students. That is because they are doing to work to encode information into their long term memory. The following strategies explain how to use your time in class and how to process the information so that you can move the information into your long-term memory.

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Preparing for Class

Understanding your learning style

Before you can develop effective note taking strategies, you need to understand your own learning style so that you can build your personal strategies on a foundation of your own strengths. If you have not already done so, please take a look at the Assessing your Learning Style section of the Study Strategies website. If you have already completed this assessment, continue on to the next section of this document.

Creating your optimum classroom environment

Although you do not have complete control over the classroom environment, there are a number of steps you can take to help you effectively learn the material. Most of these are common sense, but are all part of actively engaging in the class.

• Make sure that you sit in a seat close enough to the front so that you can hear the instructor and easily see any material that the instructor writes on the board or projects.
  
• If there are classmates who are a distraction—even if they are friends--choose a seat away from them.
  
• Have all of your note taking supplies easily accessible. Bring extra pens so that you do not have to search around if ink runs out.
  
• If you are using your laptop, do not let it distract you. Do not have it connected to the internet. If you need PowerPoint slides to follow the lecture, download them to your computer before class. If you have trouble keeping yourself off the internet, manually shut off the wireless.

Creating a structure for every class meeting

You will get more out of your time in class if you plan ahead. Material covered in a lecture will make more sense to you if you can make connections to the structure and patterns of the course as you take notes. To prepare for class, follow these strategies.

• At the very least, prepare for class by reading the assigned readings and thinking about the key ideas.
  
• You will get even more out of class if you come to class prepared with an outline of the main ideas you anticipate the instructor will cover.
  
• If the instructor provides an outline or PowerPoint slides before class, print them and use them to organize your notes. If you are going to follow along on your computer, download the slides to your hard drive. You can use the note taking field in Power Point to add your notes.
  
• If the instructor does not provide a structure, develop one from the readings, course syllabus, and previous lectures. Do not simply read through the headings in the text for suggestions of the main ideas. Develop a written outline of the main ideas that you anticipate. If you find yourself unable to develop an outline of the main ideas, talk to the professor for his or her perspective on the course structure.

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Developing your personal note taking style

There are two functions of note taking

• FIRST: The first is to help you concentrate on the information presented so that you will cognitively encode the material into your working memory. Students who sit passively in class fail to do the mental work it takes to encode the information.
• SECOND: The second function is to store the information covered in class for later review. You cannot fully understand and store all the necessary information by simply listening to the professor’s lecture. To fully learn course material, you need notes to later review. Numerous studies show that students who effectively take notes and actively review them outperform their fellow students.

How to structure your note taking

There are a variety of note taking techniques and different strategies work for different people. You have to decide on which technique works best for you. You might even use different strategies for different classes.

• a few basic rules for all note taking strategies
  
  
  • Leave plenty of blank space on each page as your take notes.
    You will use this space during and after class to add information, ask questions, and make connections. Some students find it helpful to draw a line dividing the page into two sections. In one section you will write notes following the professor’s lecture. In the second section you will record your own summary statements, questions, or connections to other materials. These might occur to you as you take notes, but you will most likely develop these thoughts after class.
    
  • Do not become overly reliant on technology.
    Instructor provided slides are helpful as an organizing tool, but are not a replacement for attending class or actively organizing the lecture information. Tape recording a lecture might be useful, but is not a substitute for active attendance in class. Only tape record lectures if you feel that there might be something you miss that makes it worth your time to listen to the lecture again. If you can fill in gaps by talking to classmates or your professors, then tape recording is probably not helpful.
    
  • Use loose leaf paper or a spiral binder from which you can remove the pages and place them into a three-ring binder. This will allow you to rewrite notes or add material in sequence.
    
  • Date and number each page.
    
  • Write on only one side of the page.
• Using the instructors Power Point slides
  Power Point slides provided by the instructor can be a valuable tool for understanding each lecture. They can also be a detriment if used improperly.
  
  
  • What to do with instructor’s slides
    Use the slides to prepare for the lecture and to provide the structure for understanding the lecture. You can print the slides and take notes on the page. If you are using your computer, there is a notes field under each slide in Power Point in which you can type notes from class. This way your notes will always be attached to the proper slide.
    
  • What not to do with instructor’s slides
    Do not rely solely on the Power Point slides as notes from the lecture. There will be much more information presented in the lecture than can be contained on a slides. If done properly, the slides will just provide you the framework, you have to listen for the details.
• Choosing your note taking style
  No one way of formatting your notes works for everyone. You can experiment to decide what works for you, keeping in mind the two functions of note taking. You will probably discover that you will use different styles for different classes. Listed below are note taking styles with links to more detailed information.
  
  
  • Cornell Note Taking Method structures the note taking page with one section for notes and a second section for recording questions, clarifications, and reflection.
    
  • Concept mapping works well for students who are visual learners and for topics in which connections between multiple concepts are important. It is also useful for studying for exams.
    
  • Outlining can work if you have a solid idea about the structure of the lecture ahead of time. A detailed outline might be unrealistic and counterproductive if you are seeing all the information for the first time. This example uses a structure similar to the Cornell Method with the additional pace left clear for notes and clarifications.
    
  • Free form notes can be useful when it is difficult to organize the material as you jot down your notes. This might be because the instructor’s lecture is not structured or because you need to get down a lot of material. This example also uses a structure similar to the Cornell Method with the additional space left clear for notes and clarifications.
    
• Using your laptop. Taking notes on your laptop can be effective if you can avoid the distractions from having your computer accessible during class. One benefit is that you can easily add more space to your note page when you want to jot down questions or clarifications. One disadvantage is that you might not find it as easy to pull out your laptop for quick review during the day.
  
  
• What do I write?
  Taking notes can provide a unique challenge to students. You want to record as much information as possible while simultaneously trying to think about the main ideas. It is easy to feel that you cannot accomplish both of the functions of note taking. Developing an effective note taking style will take work on your part to access the proper balance between encoding the information during the lecture and recording enough material to be of later use. Use the following guidelines to help develop your own style.
  
  
  • Focus on the main ideas and understanding key concepts.
    At the very least, you should record the main ideas of the material. If you have planned ahead, you will have anticipated these and have them ready to place as headings in your notes. When a professor is working through a problem on the board pay attention to the logic used to solve the problem. You will be able to find the details of the problem later.
  • Note material to which the instructor draws attention or gives clues that he or she feels is important.
    Look for clues that highlight material the instructor feels is important. Attending class regularly gives you the opportunity to actively engage the course material within the structure of the discipline as defined by the instructor. This allows you to interpret the instructor’s lecture for keys to significant material that he or she will focus the exams on.
  • Concentrate on writing down information that is not easily accessible elsewhere.
    Do not try to write down everything the professor says. Your head will explode! If the professor mentions details that can be easily looked up in the textbook or other sources, do not write them; simply write a note so that you remember to look them up later. For example, when learning about the formation of NATO in history class, you do not need to write down every member of NATO, you can look them up later. This frees your mind to think about the significance of NATO within the context of the course.
  • Develop techniques for abbreviating and paraphrasing.
    You can use standard abbreviations or develop your own set individualized to each class. Be careful, however, to use abbreviations that you will later understand. Do not write unnecessary words. Do not write “There are two types of …” Write “2 types ….” Use symbols, i.e. up or down arrows for increase or decrease.
  • Write your notes in your own words as much as possible.
    This is part of the encoding process. Trying to hold the professor’s words in your short-term memory is much more difficult than holding the ideas. You do not want to remember the words; you want to remember the information.

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Effectively using your notes

Now that you have the notes, what do you do with them?

Reviewing the material in your notes outside of class is essential to storing the information in long-term memory. Rehearsing notes is not simply a strategy to cram for an exam. It should be an ongoing effort starting as soon as you leave class and continuing until the end of the course. The key to remembering new material is to actively interact with it and manipulate it. Each time you review the material you will activate your long-term memory by first drawing out what you already know and then connecting the new information to your knowledge. The new information will be added to the structure of your knowledge that you then use to understand new information.

When and how to review your notes

• First review should be immediately after class.
  Reviewing your notes immediately after class gives you the chance to add material, make connections, ask questions, and to reorganize anything that does not make sense. This will help you consolidate your understanding of the material and produce notes that are more useful when studying. You might find it beneficial to review with another student. Working with two sets of notes and sparking each other’s memories will improve both your encoding of the material and the notes for later study.
• Second review should be before the next class meeting.
  Actively review your notes to solidify your knowledge and help organize the course material. This will help you remember more of the material and help you prepare for the next lecture. Actively rehearsing your notes involves more than simply looking them over. Useful strategies include self-questioning, summarizing, semantic mapping, drawing inferences, and connecting new information to something you already know. Working with another student will make reviewing easier because you can force each other to clearly explain the main ideas of the previous lecture. You will remember more if you test yourself at the end of every rehearsal session.
• Continue to review the material on a regular basis between the class and the exams.
  Set a schedule for reviewing your notes. During these periodic rehearsals concentrate on connecting new material to what you already know and to the course structure. Use study strategies that require you to actively engage the material. Write summaries of the main ideas, create content maps, and anticipate exam questions. Done effectively, cooperative studying is more productive than working alone. This can be through formal study groups or just by getting together with a classmate.

Tips for encoding material or “Help! I tried to develop a structure for the material, but it still does not make sense.”

• Use multiple senses
  Elaborately encoded memories are more likely to be retained. Reading, writing, and speaking material is more effective than simply reading it over. Drawing a picture to represent an idea or relationship is more effective than simply restating the relationship.
  
  
  • Strange but true: Studies show that your sense of smell is more tightly tied to memory than other senses. Test subjects who studied with an odor present recalled more information when tested in a room with the same odor, than those who were not exposed to the odor. This does not mean that you should pump the smell of buttered popcorn into your classroom, but the same flavor of gum might help.
    
• Create a meaningful context for material
  Memories are more strongly formed when attached to a personal context. If you are having difficulty remembering pieces of information, study them in a place that has a personal meaning to you. Or, study the material for different parts of the course in separate locations. Then, during exams, think back to the context of where you learned the material to aid in recall.
  
• Use mnemonic strategies
  Mnemonics are any memory technique that involves attaching images or words that are meaningful to you to new information you are having trouble remembering. The goal of these strategies is not that you will hold these connections forever, but that they will help you remember details until you can connect them to a broader structure.
  
  

  There are a number of mnemonic strategies.
  

  • Imagery: Create an image that incorporates words, ideas, or people that you need to remember. Thinking of the image then sparks the recall of the information. For example, creating an image of your friend Greg in a Bishops hat fighting Uncle Henry from the Wizard of Oz will help you remember that Pope Gregory III clashed with Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire in a struggle that had wide ranging effects in the political restructuring of Europe during the Middle Ages.
    
  • Loci: Most helpful in remembering information that must be recalled in serial order. First create images of yourself walking through the rooms of your house or a building you know well. Create a visual image connected to the each piece of information and place one in each room. When it comes time to recall the material, visualize walking through each room and looking at each object. This will prompt the recall of the information in the proper order.
    
  • Keywords: Especially helpful in learning new vocabulary. Connect a familiar key word with a new word. Then create an image that includes the meaning of the new word with the familiar word. When trying to recall the meaning of the new word, think first of the keyword, which will bring the image to mind and the image includes the meaning of the new word. For example, to remember that the Spanish word for letter is carte think of the English word cart. Then create an image of a letter in a cart. At the beginning, recall of carte = letter will require the intermediary step of visualizing the image you created. Over time, however, you will learn the word and your recall will be automatic.
    
  • Chaining: Another strategy useful for recalling information in serial order. Chaining involves creating a chain of visual images or words that connect each piece of information in a list to the next piece. Verbal chains are most effective if you can develop a sentence or short story using words that will prompt the recall of the information.
    
  • First-letter or sentence mnemonics: “My Very Excited Mother Just Starched Uncle Ned’s Pants” =order of planets. “Argh, never help x-ray kryptonite!” = noble gases.
    

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Sources

• Milton J. Dean, Working Memory and Academic Learning: Assessment and Intervention (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008).
• Rona F. Flippo and David C. Caverly, eds., Handbook of College Reading and Study Strategy Research (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 2000).
• Paul Hettich, Learning Skills for College and Career (Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1998).
• Mark A. McDaniel and Aimee A. Callender, “Cognition, Memory, and Education,” In H.L. Roediger (Ed.), Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference. (Oxford, UK: Elsevier, 2008).
• Scott W. Vanderstoep and Paul R. Pintrich, Learning to Learn: The Skill and Will of College Success (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003).
  

Concept Mapping

Free Form Note Taking

Outline Method of Note Taking

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