This paper responds to Goodwin Liu's argument in Volume II of this journal that a pedagogy must be supported by an appropriate theory of knowledge, and that the epistemology which best supports the service-learning pedagogy is anti-foundational pragmatism. The author shows that Liu's characterization of the pragmatist model of knowledge does not avoid the dualism which he sees as a fault of the traditional epistemology. After suggesting a remedy to this, the author then extends Liu's argument by indicating the limits to what the appropriately modified epistemological support will sanction. These limits are shown to be more restrictive than Liu suggests. The result is an improved philosophical justification of the service-learning pedagogy and some suggestions for evaluating proposed curricula.

This essay explores John Dewey's contribution to the pedagogy of community service learning (CSL) and in doing so explores a conception of CSL that focuses on education for critical citizenship. Dewey's writings reveal five specific areas of contribution to service-learning: 1) linking education to experience, 2) democratic community, 3) social service, 4) reflective inquiry, and 5) education for social transformation. Together, these contributions form the basis of a cultural and political critique and reconceptualized pedagogy aimed at the development of democratic values and critical citizenship.

The academy's traditional 'closed' communities contrast sharply with democratic progressive ones that are more inclusive, empowering and diverse. These latter notions of community, born out of and nurtured by alternative epistemologies, challenge the closed communities' ways of knowing. Drawing upon feminism and postmodernism, this article demonstrates why service-learning is well-suited to connect relational, experiential, and constructivist epistemologies with democratic progressive communities. Operating as a synergist, service-learning can weave intricate webs of relationships and transform the realities of all those who participate. The author's analysis of theory explicitly connects service-learning and 'community' to innovative ways of teaching, learning, knowing, and doing.

Service-learning has dramatically increased its impact on the American educational scene during the past few years, and new practitioners are quickly adopting the methods of integrating traditional classroom-based instruction and community service. As might be expected of practitioners, our practices are strong but our theory is sometimes found to be wanting. We have tinkered with methods to perfect practices without understanding the philosophical, psychological and social mechanisms that undergird our practices. For two decades, we have been drawing largely on Dewey, Kolb and Freire for theoretical support for our work. This paper suggests additional theoretical perspectives drawn largely from cognitive psychology and social theory. A number of constructs will be presented including concept formation, selective perception, categorization, critical reflection and mediated learning, each of which helps to explain the transformational nature of experiential education, as well as provide intellectual support for what are currently recognized as "best practices."

The effect of a comprehensive 2-year service-learning program on students' level of modern racism was assessed. A nonequivalent control group experiment was conducted with students from a large, Western state university. The results of the multivariate analysis generally supported the hypothesis that students who are involved in service-learning show larger reductions in modern racism than students involved in voluntarism or no service.

Drawing upon data from five case studies of institutions with a stated commitment to the integration of service, this article examines how these campuses are incorporating volunteerism and service-learning into organizational structures. Findings from the study suggest that tightly coupled systems--institutions that make centralized decisions and share governance--are more apt to institutionalize service than loosely coupled systems. The findings also show that faculty participation in curricular integration of service, presidential support of a public service mission, and funding of service-learning offices are instrumental to institutionalization.

A comprehensive case study model of assessment developed at Portland State University responds to the need to measure the impact of service-learning on four constituencies (student, faculty, community, and institution). The case studies blend quantitative and qualitative measures in order to determine the most effective and practical tools to measure service-learning impact and to provide feedback for continuous improvement of practice. Insights from the design process and preliminary results have potential value for institutions with similar agendas for service-learning and community partnerships.

Although there is a considerable body of research on service-learning in secondary education, evidence is just now emerging to support the hypothesis that service-learning has positive effects on student development in higher education. This article contributes to this growing body of literature by exploring the effects of service-learning on students in an Introduction to Sociology course. It compares learning outcomes of students in two courses, one traditionally-taught and one with service-learning. Students in the service-learning course were found to show greater improvements in measures of social responsibility and personal efficacy, and they showed evidence of greater ability to apply course concepts to new situations, lending credence to the claims that service-learning has important benefits for students.

This paper reports on one faculty member's experience introducing a service-learning component into a public policy course. After a brief description of the rationale and procedures associated with introducing the service component, impacts on student attitude and value change and on student learning are analyzed. Administration of a pre- and post-test found no significant impact of the service-learning on student attitudes. This negative result contradicts the perceptions of both the students and the instructor that service-learning enhanced the quality of learning in the course - whatever its impact on attitudes. Possible reactions for the absence of attitude change and examples of enhanced learning are discussed. Both students and instructor found service effective, as shown in the quality of class discussion and student papers, in empowering students to take responsibility for their learning.

Heidi Schweingruber,
University of Michigan

This essay calls for greater attention to the pedagogical challenges and opportunities of integrating service-learning and academic study by exploring the often unanticipated tensions in maintaining both content coverage and empowerment as objectives for a community service learning course. Drawing on transcripts of class discussion and student writing from a service-learning course focusing specifically on literacy, the authors trace students' negotiations of course readings and on-site experience as competing sources of authority. As a result, the authors revisit their initial assumptions about the relationship of course readings to on-site experience that shaped the early weeks of the course.

This paper describes the development of the first community service learning program for democratic education in South Africa. The Democracy Education Project, which is based on Swarthmore College's innovative Democracy Project, was designed and implemented by a Swartnmore College student working with a high school in a Black community near CapeTown. This case study demonstrates that the successful transposition of a model of community service learning from one country to another requires recognizing the complex relationships among history and culture, and theories and practices of democratic education. It is also crucial to involve the new community as an equal partner at every step of the process. Together, the Democracy and the Democracy Education Projects suggest the potential of community service learningfor strengthening citizenship, and for bridging the gaps between races, in the United States as well as in South Africa.

The boundaries of the health professions are changing faster now than at any time in the past century, creating a growing demand for the skills of collaboration, effective communication and teamwork. While the health care system itself has begun to embrace interdisciplinary team approaches to delivering care, medical, nursing and allied health programs provide very little direct, collaborative training of their students or faculty. Interdisciplinary service-learning holds great promise for equipping future health professionals with the collaborative problem-solving skills necessary to effect significant change in the health of our communities. This paper describes three different models of interdisciplinary service-learning in health professions education, explores common experiences and themes across models, and identifies what appear to be key components for success.

Joy W. Shortell,
Cayuga Community College

This article describes the creation and implementation of a service-learning college course, "Nonviolence, Peace and Community," which was a community response to the challenge of teaching peace. Rather than bringing a course to the community, the facilitators tried to make the course from the community. Techniques used were inclusive community participation, collaborative self-directed learning, a Socratic approach to group discussion, and an open planning process. Outcomes included increased skills of community-building and greater civic responsibility.