Group Processes
Culture and Social loafing/facilitation
-men loaf more than women b/c more caring and men individualistic
-loafing is stronger in western than Asian cultures
Group Decisions (Divisible/Unitary tasks; Groupthink; Polarization)
Groups are likely to outperform individuals when a task is divisible, or able to be broken down into specific subtasks and roles, but problems can arise when unitary due to ….
Process loss: Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving or decision-making
Ex.) Groups without assigned roles often focus on shared information, not on the unique information each person brings to the table as in juries
-During deliberation, jurors focus on shared information, not unique information - as a result, 12 people put together don’t necessarily remember and understand information that much better than 1 person
Groupthink: When groups champion unanimity and agreement over realism and accuracy, leading to a bad decision
-causes:Group is cohesive and isolated from alternative viewpoints
-symptoms: Feelings of invulnerability, ignoring negative repercussions, strong pressures to conform, feel as if higher power guiding you, etc.
– ex.) JJ-White Night
Group Processes cont’d
Group polarization: groups make more extreme decisions than individuals in group would have made
-Other members often have similar attitudes
-Individuals are exposed to supporting arguments they hadn’t thought of before
-People want to fit in with others in group
-They sense the group’s position and adjust their own attitudes even further in that direction to appear to be "good" group members
Ex.) You’re in a campus organization that supports Affirmative-Action. 1)You’re in favor of A-A, 2)You meet with group members who offer other arguments in favor of A-A you hadn’t heard, 3)You sense the group’s position, and in order to appear to be a "good" group member, you speak out even more strongly in favor of A-A, 4)You leave even more in favor of A-A, as do they
Social Dilemmas
Commons Dilemma: when take from common goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation – ex.) fishing activity; environment
Public Goods Dilemma: individ. Must contribute to a common pool to maintain the public goods – ex.) taxes for public schools; grocery shopping in co-op
Prosocial Behavior
Reasons for helping:
1) Prosocial Behavior: helping that benefits another, BUT may also benefit self & be done for that reason
Ex.) volunteer at veterinarian because looks good on resume
2) Altruism: helping in response to another's need, regardless of benefit to self
3) Kin selection: will help a genetic relative over anyone else so can pass on genes
Empathy-Altruism Theory (Batson & his colleagues): When feel empathy for another, will help
ex.) Toi & Batson (1982) "Carol" Study (car accident, behind in school)
IV #1: High-Empathy: "take her perspective"
Low-Empathy: "be objective"
IV #2: Low cost if don’t help: Won’t see her in class
High cost if don’t help: Will see her in class
Bystander effect: Greater the # of bystanders,
less likely any one will help
-Bystanders provide info social influence
-Pluralistic ignorance: Assume nothing is wrong b/c no one else seems concerned
-Feel good, do good theory
Close Relationships
What determines attraction?
-social validation that we are right
-Maintains consistency to be attracted to someone who agrees with us
-Greater availability/accessibility
-Implies similarity
-Mere exposure effect
-ex.) Festinger, Schacter & Back (1950) Westgate Study
Functional distance more important than physical distance
Social Exchange Theory: Exchange of rewards & costs, Maximize rewards & minimize costs, More rewards & less costs è better relationship
Other topics not covered here
-Relationship Expectations/Standards (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) - comparison alternatives
-love styles
-Attachment styles of love
-Terminating Relationships
-Experience of Breaking up (gender component)
-Communal and Exchange relationships
-Hatfield & Colleagues attractiveness studies
-Equity theory
Prejudice and Intergroup Relations
Prejudice = affective: negative feelings directed toward members of a group based solely upon group membership
Discrimination =behavioral: negative or harmful behaviors toward members of a group based solely upon their group membership
Devine’s (1989) Model
High PREJ (HP) & low PREJ (LP) people...
-When controlled processing is possible, LPs will exert effort to inhibit STs & to activate non-PREJ beliefs
-HPs & LPs similar in knowledge of Black ST
-Activation of Black ST is automatic for both HPs & LPs, but When given chance to be nonprej, LPs will do so (even when social desirability is not a concern)
Ingroup/Outgroups
INGROUP ("us"): Group one belongs to & identifies with
OUTGROUP ("them"): Group one does not belong to & does not identify with
Ingroup Favoritism Effect: Tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups
Minimal Group Paradigm (Tajfel and colleagues): Paradigm in which people are categorized according to arbitrary, minimally important similarities
Prejudice and Intergroup Relations cont’d
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)
Core Assumptions
Engage in IG favoritism to boost self-esteem that lies in group membership
Contact Theory: Direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice so long as certain conditions are met…
-Equal status for groups
-Engage in personal, not group-level, contact
-View members of other group as typical
-Sustained direct contact
-Support from social norms & authorities
-Common goal