• Parents’ Roles & Styles
• Child Abuse
• Historical Changes in Families
• Alternative Families
• Siblings
• Peers
• Schools

• Loving caregivers
• Identification figures
• Providers of experience
• Builders of self-concept
• Active social agents

• 2,000/year die at hands of parents & caretakers
• 18,000/year are permanently disabled
• 142,000/year are seriously injured
• Enraged fathers & males are usually abusers
• Domestic violence occurs in half the homes where child abuse occurs

• Uncontrollable anger
• Unrealistic expectations
• History of abuse as child
• Partner violence
• Socioeconomic stress
• Family isolation, single parenthood, & lack of daycare

• Males more often than females
• Physical or mental disability can trigger abuse
• Temperament distances parent, invokes abuse
• Aggressive behavior
• Depressed emotions, lack of empathy & trust

• SELF: History of abuse, low self-esteem, low IQ, poor interpersonal skills
• FAMILY: Marital discord, children with health or behavior problems, single parent, poverty
• COMMUNITY: Unemployment, economic depression, isolation, few social supports

2. Decline in large families

Historical Changes in Families

3. Rise in educational attainment

• Divorced families, single-parents
• Blended families, step-parents
• Unwed mothers, extended families
• Same sex adult partner families

• Today, nearly 30% of all American children live in poverty
• Rate is higher in single-parent families and families of color

• Dramatic changes in family structures in last 100 years
• Access to psychological & physical resources varies by SES & education
• Divorce & single parents increase hardships on children & families
• Increasing numbers of children are raised today without adequate care & support

• First borns, middle child, last borns
• Family size - confluence theory
• Only children
• Sibling interactions

• Membership leads to
• Acceptance or Rejection
• Negotiated interactions lead to
• Dominance or Submissiveness
• Social comparison leads to
• Competence or embarrassment

• Peer reinforcement
• Peer modeling
• Peer social comparison

• Physical attractiveness
• Social skills
• Strategies for conflict management

• Emotional competence
• Self-competence
• Emotional security
• Intimacy & affection
• Guidance in crises
• Reliable allies
• Companionship & intellectual stimulation

• Clear, relevant messages
• Exchange of information
• Exploration of similarities & differences
• Resolution of conflicts
• Shared play activities
• Self-disclosure

• Dominance hierarchies based on power
• Coalitions based on skill & competence
• Peer pressure for conformity

• Establish reference groups and peers
• School climate
• cooperative or competitive
• cold or caring
• Teachers
• optimistic or pessimistic expectations
• preference for compliant or active learners
• procedural or conceptual style

• Learned helplessness
• Gender role stereotypes because
• give more attention to boys
• encourage more effort from boys
• boys have competitive goals
• girls expected to have difficulty with math & science
• Lower achievement & self-esteem

• Family dynamics teach responsibility and influence children’s self-esteem
• Peers impart values that lead to shared goals and sense of identity
• Friendships buffer children from isolation
• Schools socialize academic orientations
• TV erodes family interactions and sanctions inappropriate behavior

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