10/2/00
Structure and Schools
Bureaucratic theory and schools – critical features (Sousa & Hoy, 1981)
organizational control (hierarchical organizational structure)
rational specialization (technical expertise and specialization)
system centralization
formal definition of roles
Bureaucracy is synonymous with "top down" structure
Dependence on directives from district offices
- may influence instructional behavior as well as exercise of professional judgement and behaviors
- examples: uniform scheduling, number and length of class periods, testing procedures, grading systems, topics within subject areas
A system of structured regulations/requirements seen as indicative of equity for all school groups
- This equity includes standardized criteria for achievement
Ramifications of top-down structure
- assumes uniformity of interests and skills for students; does not account for differences in background
- teaching methods reflect structure
- class formats used most are frontal methods
- subject matter taught as distinct areas of knowledge
Social Systems Model
- application of social systems to social organizations pushed by work of Katz & Kahn (1966) – The Social Psychology of Organizations
- systems are defined as a complex of elements that are related to and interact with one another over time
- emphasis on mutual relationships among parts of the systems
- the environment in which the system is contained also is viewed as a larger system
- Systems are based on exchange of matter, energy, and information with their environments in an input-output manner
- Balance is maintained through feedback
- Social Systems and Laws of Physics
- all forms of organization become increasingly disorganized (positive entropy)
- importing energy from the environment can prolong the system (negative entropy)
- state of system also depends on goals of system, structure, environmental conditions
- principle of equifinality – reaching the same goal in a variety of different ways
Community Model of School
- Sergiovanni (1994) model based on work by sociologist F. Tonnies (1887)
- Community based on commitment to, caring for, and connection with individuals
- Emphasis on inclusion of parents in planning and carrying out of various school activities
- Status or position seen as less relevant for approaching school members
- Effective communication is a function of the social system
Unique contributions of each approach
Bureaucratic model
- Basic authority structure
- Documentation of events
- Teachers and training
- "Remote control" of schools by authorities
Systems Theory
- Feedback
- Goal-oriented structure promoting having an end-product
Community Model
- Viewing the existence of a community as a mission
What features are most likely to remain or become part of school functioning?
Values, Human Relations, and Mode of Organization in Three Organizational School Models
| |
Bureaucratic |
Systems |
Communitarian |
|
Values |
Efficiency, control and supervision, regularity |
Cooperation |
Care for others’ well being |
|
Human Relations |
Formal, clear division of roles to minimize conflicts |
Open flow of information, collegiality, flexible roles |
Every member of the school is approachable, regardless of status |
|
Mode of Organization |
Defined hierarchy, one class-one teacher-one subject, curricular emphasis on academic disciplines, uniform schedule, documentation |
Short- and long-term problem solving and project teams among teachers and students, transdisciplinary curriculum, flexible schedule |
|
Organizational Modes in Traditionally Structured Schools
Relationships among and between teachers and administrators
|
Bureaucratic
|
Systems |
Community |
Relationships among and between teachers, students, and parents
|
Bureaucratic
|
Systems |
Community |
Relationships between academic subjects
Hypothesized Organizational Modes in Restructured Structured Schools
Relationships among and between teachers and administrators
|
Bureaucratic
|
Systems |
Community |
Relationships among and between teachers, students, and parents
|
Bureaucratic
|
Systems |
Community |
Relationships between academic subjects
|
Separate subjects |
Integrated curriculum
|